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eT Pe ee

The Automobile

Storage Battery.

Its Care and Repair

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American Bureau of Engineering, Inc.
1018-1024 So. Wabash Avenue, Chicago, Iil., U. S. A.

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Many books have been written on Storage Batteries used in
stationary work, as in electric power stations. These books
cover the subject thoroughly. The storage battery, as used on the
modern gasoline car, however, is subjected to service which is
radically different from that of the battery in stationary work.
It is true that the chemical actions are the same in all lead-acid
storage batteries, but the design, construction, and operation of
the starting and lighting battery aré unique, and require a special
description.

This book therefore refers only to the lead-acid type of starting
and lighting battery used on the modern gasoline automobile. It
is divided into two sections. The first section covers the, théory,
design, operating conditions, and care of the battery. The Wil-
lard Battery Company, the Electric Storage Battery Company,
and the U. S. Light and Heat Corporation kindly contributed
most of the illustrations for this section.

The second section deals with the actual work of repairing and
rebuilding the storage battery. Much of the material for the
text in this section was furnished by Mr. H. E. Peers of Topeka,
Kansas, who also supplied: most of the photographs from which
the illustrations were made for this section. Mr. Peers is a
practical battery man, and has been engaged in actually repair-
ing and rebuilding batteries for many years.

The second section will be especially valuable to the battery
repairman. All the instructions given have been in actual use
for years, and represent the accumulated experiences of one of
the most up-to-date battery repair shops in the United States.

Information concerning any of the tools and appliances may be
obtained from the American Bureau of Engineering.

O. A. WITTE,
Chief Engineer, American Bureau of Engineering.

CONTENTS |

SECTION 1.

Chapter Page
1. INTRODUCTORY 2.2... .. cece ec cee cee ee cece eee neee. 1
2. BATTERIES IN GENERAL........ 0... cL ec ccc cece eee 5
3. CHEMICAL ACTIONS WHICH PRCDUCE ELECTRICITY......... 11
4. HOW CHEMICAL ACTIONS PRODUCE ELECTRICITY......... 17
5. LOSS OF CHARGE IN AN IDLE BATTERY..................... 26
6. THE DISCHARGE PHENOMENA................ 20 cece ee eee 2G
7. THE CHARGE PHENOMENA.......... 0... ccc cece ee ee eens 37
8. CAPACITY OF STORAGE BATTERIUS....................085.. 40
9. INTERNAL RESISTANCE .............. 0. cece ee eee 48

10. BATTERY DISEASES ........ 06. ccc ccc eee ee tenes 51

11. CONDITIONS OF OPERATION............. 0... cece eee ee eee 61

12. HOW TO TAKE CARE OF BATTERY ON THE CAR............ 68

13. MANUFACTURE OF STORAGE BATTERIES.................... 89

SECTION 2.
14, THE WORK SHOP. GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS............... 102

15.

16.

The Workshop. Shop Equipment. Special Work Bench. Shelving.
Concerning Light. Charging Methods. Charging Equipment.
Double Charging Bench. Motor-Generator Sets. Mercury Arc
Rectifier. Electrolytic Rectifier. Discharge Board. Tools and
Equipment. The Battery Steamer. The Battery Plate Press.
Battery Turntable. The Burning Lead Mold. Tagging Bat-
teries. Precautions to Be Taken by the Repairman. Lead Burn-
ing. Saving the Sediment. Mixing Electrolyte.

ANALYSIS OF THE CONDITION OF THE BATTERY........... 162

What Is the Trouble? Cutout Adjustments. Battery Trouble
Charts. Summary of Work to Be Done on the Battery. When
May a Battery Be Left on the Car? When Should a Battery
Be Removed from the Car? When Is It Unnecessary to Open
the Battery? When Must a Battery Be Opened?

WORK ON THE BATTERY.......... 0... ccc cece ce ee ce ene ee eess 182

Charging Batteries Before Rebuilding. How to Open a Battery.
What Must Be Done with the Opened Battery? When to Put
in New Plates. When the Old Plates May Be Used Again.
Separators. Freeing Shorts. Charging, Washing and Pressing.

Chapter

CONTENTS

Page

Burning on Plates. Reassembling the Elements. Repairing the
Case. Putting in New Jars. Putting Elements in Jars. Fill-
ing Jars with Electrolyte. Putting on the Covers. Sealing
Compounds. Sealing the Battery. Burning in the Connecting
Straps with Hydrogen and Oxygen Flame. Burning in the Con-
necting Straps with Soldering Irons. Cleaning and Painting the

Case. Charging the Rebuilt Battery. Discharging and Testing.

17. SPECIAL INSTRUCTIONS ......... cee cee eee eeee

Willard Type S Batteries. Ex‘de Batteries.

U. S. L. Batteries.

18. CADMIUM TEST. STORING BATTERIES..... eccecceceeeeues

Prestolite Batteries.

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Section I

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BL BUBUE BRIBE

Theory and Practice

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The Automobile Storage
Battery

CHAPTER i.
INTRODUCTORY.

Gasoline and electricity have made possible the modern auto-
mobile. Each has its work to do in the operation of the ear,
and if either fails to perform its duties, the car cannot move.
The action of the gasoline, and the mechanisms that control it
are comparatively simple, and easily understood, because gasoline
is something definite which we can see and feel, and which can
be weighed, or measured in gallons. Electricity, on the other
hand, is invisible, cannot be poured into cans or tanks, has no
odor, and, therefore, nobody knows just what it is. We can
only study the effects of electricity, and the wires, coils, and
similar apparatus in which it is present. It is for ‘this reason
that an air of mystery surrounds electrical things, especially to
the man who has not made a special study of the subject.

Without electricity, there would be no gasoline engine, be-
cause gasoline itself cannot cause the engine to operate. It is
only when the electrical spark explodes or ‘‘ignites*’ the mix-
ture of gasoline and air which has been drawn into the engine
cylinders that the engine develops power. Thus an elec-
trical ignition system has always been an essential part of every
gasoline automobile.

The next step in the use of electricity on the automobile con-
sisted in the substitution of an electric lighting system for the .
inconvenient oil or gas Jamps which were satisfactory as far
as the light they gave was concerned, but which had the dis-
advantage of requiring whe driver to leave his seat, and bring

2 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

each lamy" inte lyfe. separately, vften in a strong wind or rain
which cohstinied* many ~*matchés,-time, and frequently spoiled |
his temper for the remainder of the evening. Electric lamps
have none of these disadvantages. They can be controlled from
the driver’s seat, can be turned on or off by merely turning or
pushing a switch-button, are not affected by wind or rain, do not
smoke up the lenses, and do not send a stream of unpleasant
odors back to the passengers.

The apparatus used to supply the electricity for the lamps con-
sisted of a generator, or a ‘‘storage’’ battery, or both. The gen-
erator alone had the disadvantage that the lamps could be used
only while the engine was running. The battery, on the other
hand, furnished light at all times, but had to be removed from
the car frequently, and ‘‘charged.’’ With both the generator
and battery, the lights could be turned on whether the engine
was running or not, and, furthermore, it was no longer necessary
to remove the battery to ‘‘charge,’’ or put new life into it. With
a generator and storage battery, moreover, a reliable source of
electricity for ignition was provided, and so we find dry batteries
and magnetos being discarded in a great many automobiles and
‘battery ignition’’ systems substituted.

The development of electric lighting systems increased the pop-
ularity of the automobile, but the mbtor car still] had a great
drawback—cranking. Owing to the peculiar features of a gaso-
line engine, it must first be put in motion by some external power
before it will begin to operate under its own power. This made
it necessary for the driver to ‘‘crank’’ the engine, or start it
moving, by means of a handle attached to the engine shaft.
' Cranking a large engine is difficult, especially if it is cold, and
often results in tired muscles, and soiled clothes and tempers.
It also made it impossible for the average woman to drive a car
because she did not have the strength necessary to ‘‘crank”’
an engine.

The next step in the perfection of the automobile was naturally
the development of an automatic device to crank the engine,
and thus make the driving of a car a pleasure rather than a task.

We find, therefore, that in 1912, ‘‘self-starters’’ began to be —

used. These were not all electrical, some used tanks of com-

INTRODUCTORY 3

pressed air, others acetylene, and various mechanical devices,
such as the spring starters. The electrical starters, however,
proved their superiority immediately, and filled such a long felt
want that fully 98% of the various makes of automobiles now
have electric starters. The present day motor car, therefore,
uses gasoline for the engine only, but uses electricity for igni-
tion, starting, lighting, for the horn, cigar lighters, hand warmers
on the steering wheel, gasoline vaporizers, and even for shifting
speed changing gears, and for the brakes.

Fig. 1. The Battery

On any car that uses an electric lighting and starting system,
there are two sources of electricity, the generator and the bat-
tery. These must furnish the power for the starting, or ‘‘crank-
ing’’ motor, the ignition, the lights, the horn, and the other
devices. The demands made upon the generator are compara-
tively light and simple, and no severe work is done by it. The
battery, on the other hand is called upon to give a much more
severe service, that of furnishing the power to crank the engine.
It must also perform all the duties of the generator when the
engine is not running, since a generator must be in motion in
order to produce electricity.

4 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

A generator is made of iron, copper, carbon, and insulation.
These are all solid substances which can easily be built in any
size or Shape, and which undergo very little change as parts of
the generator. The battery is made mainly of lead, lead com-
pounds, water and sulphuric acid. Here we have liquids as well
as solids, which produce electricity by changes in their com-
position, resulting in complicated chemical as well as electrical
actions.

The battery is, because of its construction and performance, a
much abused, neglected piece of apparatus which is but partly
understood, even by many electrical experts, for to understand
it thoroughly requires a study of chemistry as well as of elec-
tricity. Knowledge of the construction and action of a storage
battery is not enough to make anyone an expert battery man.
He must also know how to regulate the operating conditions
so as to obtain the best service from the battery, and he must
be able to make complete repairs on any battery no matter what
its condition may be.

In the following chapters we shall treat in detail the subjects
of electrical and chemical reactions, construction, operation,
maintenance, and repair, with the object of making the reader
familiar with all phases of battery work, and to lift the veil of
mystery from the ‘‘giant who lives in a box.’’

—_$— ie, memento, Di. oP a: cian

.
ST OGG |e oe

CHAPTER 2.
BATTERIES IN GENERAL.

There are three ways of ‘‘generating”’ electricity; 1. Magnet-
ically, 2. Chemically, 3. Thermally. The first method is that used
in a generator, in which wires are rotated in a ‘‘field’’ in which
magnetic forces act. The second method is that of the battery,
and the one in which we are now interested. The third method
consists of heating a joint of two different metals and is of no
practical importance.

If two unlike metals or conducting substances are placed in
a liquid which acts chemically upon one of the substances more
than upon the other, an electrical pressure, or ‘‘electromotive’’
force is caused to exist between the two metals or conducting
substances. The greater the difference in the chemical activity
on the substances, the greater will be the electrical pressure,
and if the substances are connected together outside of the liquid
by a wire‘or other conductor of electricity, an electric current
will flow through the path or ‘‘cireuit’’ consisting of the liquid,
the two substances which are immersed in the liquid, and the
external wire or conductor. |

As the current flows through the combination of the liquid,
and the substances immersed in it, which is called a voltaic ‘‘cell,”’
one or both of the substances undergo chemical changes which con-
tinue until one of the substances is entirely changed. These
chemical changes produce the electrical pressure which causes
the eurrent to flow, and the flow will continue until one or both
of the substances are changed entirely. This change due to the
chemical action may result in the formation of gases, or of
solid compounds. If gases are formed they escape and are lost.
If solids are formed, no material is actually lost.

Assuming that one of the conducting substances, or ‘‘elec-
trodes,’’ which are immersed in the liquid has been acted upon

6 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

by the liquid, or ‘‘electrolyte,’’ until no further chemical action
can take place, our voltaic cell will no longer be capable of
causing a flow of electricity. If none of the substances result-
ing from the original chemical action have been lost as gases, it
may be possible to reverse the entire set of operations which
have taken place. “That is, Suppose we now send a current
through the cell from an outside source of electricity, in a. direc-
tion which is opposite to that in which the currerit, which was
produced by the chemical action between the electrodes and
electrolyte, flowed.’ If this current now produces chemical ac-
tions between electrodes and electrolyte which are the reverse
of those which occurred originally, so that finally we have the
electrodes and electrolyte brought back to their original compo-
sition and condition, we have the cell just as it was before we
used it for the production of an electrical pressuree The cell
can now again be used as a source of electricity as long as
the electrolyte acts tipon the electrodes, or until it is ‘‘dis-
charged’’ and incapable of any further production of electrical
pressure. Sending a current through a discharged eell, so
as to reverse the chemical actions which brought about the dis-
charged condition, is called ‘‘charging’’ the cell.

Cells in which an electrical pressure is produced as soon as-the
electrodes are immersed in the electrolyte are called ‘‘primary’’
cells. In these cells it is often impossible, and always unsatis-
factory to reverse the chemical action as explained above. Cells
whose chemical actions are reversible are called ‘‘storage’’ or
‘‘secondary’’ cells. In the ‘‘storage’’ cells used today, a current
must first be sent through the cell in order. to cause the chem-
ical changes which result in putting the electrodes and elec-
trolyte, in such a condition that they will be capable of pro-
ducing an electrical pressure when the chemical changes caused
by the current are complete. The cell now possesses all the
characteristics of a primary cell, and may be used as a.source
of electricity until ‘‘discharged.’’ It may then be ‘‘charged’’
again, and so on, the chemical action in one case causing a flow
of current, and a reversed flow of current causing reversed chem-
ical actions. .

We see from the above that the ‘‘storage’’ battery does not

BATTERIES IN GENERAL 7

“‘store’’ electricity at all, but changes chemical into electrical
energy when ‘‘discharging,’’ and changes electrical into chem-
ieal energy when ‘‘charging,’’ the two actions being entirely
reversible. The idea of ‘‘storing’’ electricity comes from the
fact that if we send a current of electricity through the cell
for a certain length of time, we can at a later time draw a current
from the cell for almost the same length of time.

Three things are therefore required in a storage cell, the liquid
or ‘‘electrolyte’’ and two unlike substances or electrodes, through

4 Complete Cell
Fig. 2

which a current of electricity can pass and which are acted upon
by the electrolyte with a chemical action that is greater for one
substance than the other. In the storage cell used on the auto-
mobile to-day for starting and lighting, the electrodes are lead
and peroxide of lead, and the electrolyte is a mixture of sulphuric
aeid and water. The peroxide of lead electrode is the one upon
which the electrolyte has the greater chemical effect, and it is
called the positive or ‘‘-++’’ electrode, because when the battery
is sending a current through an external circuit, the current

8 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

flows from this electrode through the external circuit, and back
to the lead electrode, which is called the negative, or ‘‘—”
electrode.

When starting and lighting systems were adopted in 1912,
storage batteries had been used for many years in electrie power
stations. These were, however, large and heavy, and many dif-
ficult problems of design had to be solved in order to produce
a battery capable of performing the work of cranking the engine,
and yet be portable, light, and small enough to occupy only a

Fig. 8. A complete element, consisting of a positive and negative group of plates,

hold-down blocks and separators ready for placing in the hard rubber jars
very limited space on the automobile. As a result these condi-
tions governing the design, the starting and lighting battery of
to-day is in reality ‘‘the giant that lives in a box.’’ The Elec-
trie Storage Battery Company estimates that one of its types of
batteries, which measures only 125 inches long, 73g wide, and
91% high, and weighs only 6312 pounds, can deliver enough
energy to raise itself to a height of 6 miles straight up in the
air. It must be able to do its work quickly at all times, and in
all sorts of weather, with temperatures ranging from below 0°
to 100° Fahrenheit.

BATTERIES IN GENERAL 9

The starting and lighting battery has therefore been designed
to withstand severe operating conditions. Looking at such a bat-
tery on a car we see a small wooden box in which are placed three
or more ‘‘cells,’’ see Fig. 1. Each ‘‘cell’’ has a hard, black rubber
top through which two posts of lead project. Bars of lead connect
the posts of one cell to those of the next. To one of the posts of each
end cell is connected a cable which leads into the car, and through
which the current leaves or enters the battery. At the center of
each cell is a removable rubber plug covering an opening through
which communication is established with the inside of the cell
for the purpose of pouring in water, removing some of the elec-
trolyte to determine the condition of the battery, or to allow gases
formed within the cell to escape. Looking down through this
opening we can see the things needed to form a storage battery:
the electrolyte, and the electrodes or ‘‘plates’’ as they are called.
J£ we should remove the lead bars connecting one cell to another,
and take off the black cover, we shall find that the posts which
project out of the cells are attached to the plates which are
broad and flat, and separated by thin pieces of wood or rubber. If
we lift the plates out of the jar we find that they are connected
alternately to the two lead posts, and that the two outside ones
have a gray color. If we pull the plates out from each other, we
find that the plates next to the two outside ones, and all other
plates connected to the same lead post as these have a chocolate-
_ brown color. If we remove the jar of the cell, we find that it is
made of hard rubber. Pouring out the electrolyte we find several
ridges which hold the plates off the bottom of the jar. The pock-
ets formed by these ridges may contain some soft, muddy sub-
stance. Thus we have exposed all the elements of a cell,—posts,
plates, ‘‘separators,’’ and electrolyte. The gray colored plates
are attached to the ‘‘negative’’ battery post, while the chocolate-
brown colored ones are connected to the ‘‘positive’’ battery post.
Examination will show that each of the plates consists of a skele-
ton metallic framework which is filled with the brown or gray sub-
stances. This construction is used to decrease the weight of the
battery. The gray filler material is pure lead in a condition called
‘‘spongy lead.’’ The chocolate-brown filler substance is peroxide
of lead. a” | |

10 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

We have found nothing but two sets of plates,—one of pure
lead, the other of peroxide of lead, and the electrolyte of sulphuric
acid and water. These produce the heavy current necessary to
crank the engine. How this is done,.and what the chemical. ac-
tions within the cell are, are described in the next chapter.

CHAPTER 3.

CHEMICAL ACTIONS WHICH PRODUCE ELECTRICITY.

Before explaining what happens within one storage cell, let
us look into the early history of the storage battery, and see what
a modest beginning the modern heavy duty battery had. Between
1850 and 1860 a man named Plante began his work on the storage
battery. His original cell consisted of two plates of metallic lead
immersed in dilute sulphuric acid. The acid formed a thin layer
of lead sulphate on each plate which soon stopped further action
on the lead. If a current was passed through the cell, the lead
sulphate on the ‘‘anode’’ or lead plate at which the current
entered the cell was changed into peroxide of lead, while the sul-
phate on the other lead plate or ‘‘cathode’’ was changed into pure
lead in a spongy form. This cell-was allowed to stand for a
couple of days and was then ‘‘discharged,’’ lead sulphate being
again formed on each plate. Each time this cell was charged, more
‘‘spongy’’ lead and peroxide of lead were formed. These are
called the ‘‘active’’ materials, because it is by the chemical action
between them and the sulphuric acid that the electricity is pro-
duced. Evidently, the more active materials the plates contained,
the longer the chemical action between, the acid and active ma-
terials could take place, and hence the greater the ‘‘capacity,’’
or amount of electricity furnished by the cell. The process of
charging and discharging the battery so as to increase the amount
of active material, is called ‘‘forming’’ the plates.

Plante’s method of forming plates was very slow, tedious, and
expensive. If the spongy lead, and peroxide of lead could be
made quickly from materials which could be spread over the
plates, much time and expense could be saved. It was Faure who
first suggested such a plan, and gave us the ‘“‘pasted’’ plate of
to-day, which consists of a skeleton framework of lead, with the
sponge lead and peroxide of lead filling the spaces between the

12 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

‘‘ribs’’ of the framework. Such plates are known as ‘‘pasted” |
plates, and are much lighter and satisfactory than the heavy solid |
lead plates of Plante’s. Chapter 13 will describe more fully the
processes of manufacturing and pasting the plates.

We know now what constitutes a storage battery, and what the
parts are that ‘‘generate’’ the electricity. How is the electricity
produced? If we take a battery which has been entirely
discharged, so that it is no longer able to cause a flow of current,
and examine and test the electrolyte and the materials on the
plates, we shall find that the electrolyte is pure water, and both
sets of plates composed of white lead sulphate. On the other
hand, if we make a similar test and examination of the plates and
electrolyte of a battery through which a current has been sent
from some outside source, such as a generator, until the current
can no longer cause chemical reactions between the plates and
electrolyte, we will find that the electrolyte is now eomposed of
water and sulphuric acid, the acid comprising about 30%, and
the water 70% of the electrolyte. The negative set of plates will
be composed of pure lead in a spongy form, while the positive will
consist: of peroxide of lead.

It is evident that the chemical changes which have taken place
in totally discharging the battery consisted in taking all the acid
out of the electrolyte, changing the material of the positive plates
from lead peroxide to lead sulphate, and changing the material of
the negative plates from pure spongy lead to lead sulphate. Both
plates are now composed of the same material, and they are im-
mersed in pure water, which has no chemical action upon either
plate. Such a combination cannot produce electricity, as ex-
plained previously. |

The foregoing description gives the final products of the chem-
ical changes that take place in the storage battery. To under-
stand the changes themselves requires a more detailed investiga-
tion. The substances to be considered in the chemical actions
are sulphuric acid, water, pure lead, lead sulphate, and lead ©
peroxide. With the exception of the pure lead, each of these sub- |
stances is a chemical compound, or composed of several elements.
Thus sulphuric acid is made up of two parts of hydrogen, which
is a gas; one part of sulphur, a solid, and four parts of oxygen,

ee a.

CHEMICAL ACTIONS WHICH PRODUCE ELECTRICITY 13

which is also a gas; these combine to form the acid, which is a
liquid, and which is for convenience written as H,SO,, H., rep-
resenting two parts of hydrogen, S one part of sulphur, and O,
four parts of oxygen. Similarly, water a liquid, is made up of
two parts of hydrogen and one part of oxygen, represented by
the symbol H,0. Lead is not a compound, but an element whose
chemical symbol is Pb, taken from the Latin name for lead. Lead
sulphate is a solid, and consists of one part of lead, a solid sub-
stance, one part of sulphur, another solid substance, and four

' WA ASANO NSS SWANS AANA
¢ ~~

Chemical Action in aStorage Cell During
Charge

Fig. 4

parts of oxygen, a gas. It is represented chemically by Pb SQ,.
Lead peroxide is also a solid, and is made up of one part of lead,
and two parts of oxygen. In the chemical changes that take place,
the compounds just described are to a certain extent split up into
the substances of which they are composed. We thus have lead
(Pb), hydrogen (H), oxygen (QO), and sulphur (S), four ele-
mentary substances, two of which are solids, and two gases. The
sulphur does not separate itself entirely from the substances with
which it forms combination of H,SO, and Pb SO,. These com-
pounds are split into H, and SO, and Pb and SO, respectively.

14 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

That is, the sulphur always remains combined with four parts of
oxygen. |

Let us now consider a single storage cell made up of electrolyte,
one positive plate, and one negative plate. When this cell is fully
charged, or in a condition to produce a current of electricity, the
positive plate is made up of peroxide of lead (PbO,), the negative
plate of pure lead (Pb), and the electrolyte of sulphuric acid
(H,SO,). This is shown diagrammatically in figure 4. The chem-
ical changes that take place when the cell is discharging and the
final result of the changes are as follows:

(a). At the positive plate: Lead peroxide (PbO,) and sulphuric
acid (H,SO,) and two parts of hydrogen (H,) produce two parts
of water (2H,O) and one part of lead sulphate (PbSO,). This
may also be represented in this way: PbO,+H,S0,+H, =
PbSO,-+2H,0.

(b). At the negative plate: Lead (Pb) and Sulphate (SO,)
produce lead sulphate PbSO,. This may again be represented by
Pb-++SO, — PbSQ,.

From (a) and (b), above, we see
that at the positive plate the chemical

water and lead sulphate, whereas only
lead sulphate is produced at the nega-
tive plate, showing that the positive
plate is acted upon to a greater extent
by the acid than the negative plate is.
The storage cell therefore fulfills the
condition necessary to have a current
produced, namely, that we must have
two unlike substances immersed in a
liquid, the chemical action of which
is greater upon one substance than
upon the other.

Chemical Action ina Storage Cell Durin ; . .
Discharge The chemical changes described in
Fig. 5 (a) and (b) are not instantaneous.

That is, the lead, lead peroxide, and
sulphuric acid of the fully charged cell are not changed into lead
sulphate and water as soon as a current begins to pass through the

changes during discharge produce |

a cae tl ———

CHEMICAL ACTIONS WHICH PRODUCE ELECTRICITY 15

cell. This action is a gradual one, small portions of these substances
being changed ata time. The greater the current that flows through
the cell, the faster will the changes occur. The changes will continue
to take place as long as any lead, lead peroxide, and sulphuric acid
remain. The faster these are changed into lead sulphate and water,
the shorter will be the time that the storage cell can furnish a cur-
rent, or the sooner it will be discharged. When the cell is completely
discharged, we will have the conditions shown in the lower part of
the cell of figure 5.

Taking the cell in its discharged condition, let us now connect
the cell to a dynamo and send current through the cell from the
positive to the negative plates. This is called ‘‘charging’’ the cell.
The lead sulphate and water will now gradually be changed back
into lead, lead peroxide, and sulphuric acid. The lead sulphate
which is on the negative plate is changed to pure lead; the lead
sulphate on the positive plate is changed to lead peroxide, and sul-°
phuric acid will be added to the water. The changes at the positive
plate may be represented as follows:

Lead sulphate (PbSO,) and water (2H,O) and sulphate (SO,)
produce sulphuric acid (2H,SO,) and lead peroxide (PbO,), or

PbSO, + 2H,0 + SO, = 2H,SO, + PbO,
Pb + SO, + 2H, + 20 + SO, = 2H,SO, + PbO,
(Pb + 20) + (2H, + S80,-+ S0,) = 2H,S0O, + PbO,

The changes at the negative plate may be expressed as follows:

Lead sulphate (PbSO,) and hydrogen (H,) produce sulphuric
acid (H,SO,) and lead (Pb), or

PbSO, -+ H, = H,S0, -+ Pb
Pb -+ SO, + H, = H,80, + Pb
Pb + (SO,-+-H.) = H,80, -+ Pb

These changes produced by sending a eurrent through the cell
are also gradual, and will take place faster as the current is made
greater. When all the lead sulphate has been used up by the
ehemical changes caused by the current, no further charging can
_ take place. If we continue to send a current through the cell
after it is fully charged, the water will continue to be split up into
_hydrogen and oxygen. Since, however, there is no more lead

16 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

sulphate left with which the hydrogen and oxygen can combine
to form lead, lead peroxide, and sulphuric acid, the hydrogen and
oxygen rise to the surface of the electrolyte and escape from the
cell. This is known as ‘‘gassing,’’ and is an indication that the
eell is fully charged.

CHAPTER 4.

HOW CHEMICAL ACTIONS PRODUCE ELECTRICITY.

In Chapter 3 we studied the chemical changes that occurred in
the cell both when the cell was producing a current, and when a
current was sent through the cell from a dynamo. But we have
not as yet learned how these chemical actions preduce electricity.
The fact that the chemical actions produce electricity, and
that, on the other hand, electricity produces chemical changes
shows that electricity and chemical changes are closely asso-

ciated.

A complete study of the electricity which chemical changes
make available would furnish material for a book many times

“" te Cell During Discharge

thicker than this one, as it
forms a distinct branch of
science known as Electro-
Chemistry. A general in-
vestigation will be made,
however. No chemical
change, or chemical reac-
tion is supposed to produce
electricity, but merely to
make it available for use.
Thus the storage battery
contains the electricity be-
fore any chemical change
takes place. As soon as the
battery circuit is closed
through the lamps or
starting motor, however,
the electric current flows
out of the battery at the

positive terminal, and back into the battery at the negative terminal.
Where is the electricity, and in what form, and how does the mere
closing of the battery circuit cause it to appear?

18 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

‘When we think of an electric current flowing through a wire,
we take it for granted that at any point in the wire the cur-
rent is flowing in one direction only, just lke water flowing
through a pipe. When, however, a current flows through a

liquid, like the battery electrolyte, it is supposed to be |

flowing both from the positive to the negative, and from
the negative to the positive. These currents are carried
by the sulphuric acid. As long as this acid is not mixed with
water, it cannot carry any current. -When the acid is poured

into the water, it is partly divided into hydrogen (H,) and
sulphate (SO,). This happens as soon as the acid and water are _
mixed. The hydrogen has a certain amount of positive elec-

tricity attached to it, and the sulphate a certain amount of neg-
ative electricity. Where did the electricity come from? It
was in the acid in the first place, but as long as the acid was not
separated into hydrogen and sulphate, the positive electricity
of the hydrogen neutralized that of the sulphate. The particles
which have the electricity attached to them are called ‘‘ions.”’
They are extremely small, and the electricity they carry is spoken
of as a positive or a negative ‘‘charge’’ of electricity, or simply
‘‘eharge.’’ We then have a quantity of hydrogen ions which

are carrying positive electricity or have a positive ‘‘charge.”’

Similarly the sulphate ions carry a certain amount of negative
electricity, or have a negative ‘‘charge.’’ The ions are entirely
unlike the substances as we see them and have different char-
acteristics.

Leaving the acid with its ‘‘charges’’ of electricity, let us con-
sider the electrodes or plates. Like the acid, the lead and lead
peroxide contain certain amounts of electricity, both positive
and negative. When the electrodes are immersed in the elec-

trolyte these amounts of positive and negative charges are made ©

available.

At the negative plate, which is composed of pure lead, some of |

the lead separates from the plate, and mixes with the acid in
the form of ‘‘ions,”’ each ion carrying a small amount, or charge
of electricity. The lead ion leaves a similar and equal amount
negative electricity on the lead plate. Only a very few of these
lead ions are formed as long as no current passes through the

HOW CHEMICAL ACTIONS PRODUCE ELECTRICITY 19

battery. This is due to the fact that the positive charge on the
lead ion and the negative charge on the lead plate have a strong
attraction for each other. After a few ions have been formed,
the attraction is so strong that no more are formed. Similarly,
for the positive plate, small particles of the lead peroxide enter

CHARGED CELL ON OPEN CIRCUIT

Ww
ae
<
y
a
QO
{
w
a

LEAD PEROXIDE PLATE

Fig. 7

the electrolyte, and take with them certain quantities of nega-
tive electricity, or negative charges, leaving the plate with an
equal positive charge. As long as the circuit outside the battery
is Open, no current can flow, because the negative and positive
quantities of electricity, or ‘‘charges’’ on the plates are kept
there by the opposite charges on the ions that have entered the

20 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

acid. The fact that the minute particles called ‘‘ions”’ carry
with them certain quantities of electricity is indicated by writing
the signs ‘‘+-’’ and ‘‘—”’ after them. Thus, a lead ion is written
(Pb*t), and a lead peroxide ion PbO,”).

Figure 7 shows the conditions described above. At the nega-
tive plate is a layer of lead ions which have gone into the acid,
carrying positive charges and leaving an equal number of nega-

CELL DISCHARGING

LEAD PLATE

LEAD PEROXIDE PLATE

NPI LPI PI I SIL LI I

+t het ttttettte te ttet

tive charges on the lead plate. Similarly, at the positive plate
is a layer of lead peroxide ions which have entered the acid,
carrying negative charges, and leaving an equal number of posi-
tive charges on the positive plate. The acid itself has been split
by the water, into hydrogen ions and sulphate ions, the hydrogen
ions carrying positive charges, and the sulphate ions carrying
negative charges. The ions of the acid are distributed through-
out the electrolyte. As the figure shows, the number of positive

HOW CHEMICAL ACTIONS PRODUCE ELECTRICITY 21

and negative ions are equal, and as they attract each other
strongly, they cannot move away from each other, and hence no
current can flow.

If we now connect the positive and negative plates together
through a starting motor, as shown in figure 8, conditions will
be changed. The positive charges on the positive plate will move

0
)
0
a
>
A
0)
m
U
-)
m
-

U U U0 Uv U\/ 7 0 v
gicgiicic\lelr\lc\loels
HTolololol ol] of of o
ollollololollollol_ojio
KNSNENENAE ADEN ENON

LEAD SULPHATE PLATE
LEAD SULPHATE PLATE

: v v
v J
W) i)

a O \ Ny O w

Fig. 9

along the wire and through the motor to the negative plate.
There they will meet the negative charges. In order that the
positive and negative charges on the plates may send a current
through the starting motor, the lead ions and the lead peroxide
ions must be removed from the surfaces of the plates. Otherwise
the attraction of the lead and lead peroxide ions for the charges

22 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

on the plate will hold the latter on the plate. Now, each ion has
a tendency to move through the acid. As soon as some of the
negative charges start to leave the lead plate to go through the
motor, the lead ions start to move toward the lead peroxide plate.
They have hardly started to move, however, before they meet sul-
phate ions from the acid. The sulphate ions and the lead ions
combine and form lead sulphate. Similarly, the lead peroxide
ions begin to leave the positive plate. They are then split up into
lead ions (Pb**) and oxygen ions (20°). This leaves hydrogen
ions from the acid, and oxygen ions from the lead peroxide un-
accounted for. The two have opposite charges, and hence attract
each other, uniting to form water. This gives us lead sulphate
and water as the final products of discharging a battery, which
agrees with, the equation on page 14.

The lead of a negative plate, and the lead peroxide of the
positive plate are called ‘‘active’’ materials. They are not the
only substances which ean be used for storage batteries. Many
combinations for electrolyte and plates have been tried, but the
lead, lead peroxide, and sulphuric acid combination has worked
out to be the best combination for practical use. They do not
ereate electricity, as was explained above, but the chemical
ehanges that take place in the battery readjust the small quanti-
ties of electricity or ‘‘charges’’ which are carried by the ‘‘ions”’
so that we are able to force the charges to move through the
starting motor, lamps, or other apparatus. The water in the bat-
tery causes the ‘‘ions’’ to form as separate particles carrying
‘‘charges.’’ Without water we could not have a battery, as the
electricity bound up in the active materials would never be avail-
able, because the negative and positive charges neutralize each
other ordinarily, and must be separated from each other long
enough to be forced to run the starting motor, light the lamps, and
furnish current for the ignition. Once the charges are separated,
they have a tendency to unite with those of opposite sign. The
water prevents a complete reunion of the ions carrying the
charges, but the tendency they have to unite gives the voltage, or
electromotive force of the battery. When a current is made to
flow through the motor, charges are uniting, and a current will
continue to flow as long as there are charges available. As soon

ee, I ee.

HOW CHEMICAL ACTIONS PRODUCE ELECTRICITY 23

as charges unite through the motor, more are formed in the elec-
trolyte from the lead, lead peroxide, and sulphuric acid. When
these materials have all been used so that we have only lead sul-
phate and water in the battery, no more charges are available,
and the battery can no longer produce a current.

In practice, a battery is never discharged until all the lead,
lead peroxide, and sulphurie acid are changed into lead sulphate
and water. As lead sulphate is formed, it fills up the pores in
the plates, and covers the remaining lead and lead peroxide so
that they are practically sealed in and made useless. The removal
of the sulphate becomes increasingly difficult as more is formed,
and, therefore, a battery should not be discharged entirely. This
subject will be treated. more completely later.

Charging Discharging

Fig. 10

The battery is now completely discharged. We now send a
continuous current through it so that the current enters through
the positive terminal, and leaves through the negative terminal,
. Fig. 10. This direction of flow is just the reverse of the current
produced by the battery in discharging. The current we are send-
ing through the battery gradually puts it in a condition in which
it can again furnish a current. We saw how the battery produces
a current when it is fully charged, that is, when we had a plate
of pure lead, a plate of lead peroxide and an electrolyte of acid
and water. Now we are starting with two plates of lead sul-
phate immersed in water. How does a current charge the bat-
tery? .

When a battery is completely discharged, we have lead sul-

24 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

phate at each plate,.and water. The water has the power to
split the lead sulphate into lead (Pb), and sulphate (SO,). The
water itself is separated, to a slight extent, into hydrogen (H,),
and oxygen (QO). These parts into which the lead sulphate and
water separate each carry a ‘‘charge’’ of electricity, some posi-
tive, and some negative. The lead and hydrogen are positive, and
the sulphate and oxygen negative. We thus have lead ‘‘ions’’
(Pb*t), sulphate ions (SO, -), hydrogen ions (H,*), and oxygen
ions (O°). , As long as the battery is not being charged, the +
and — charges attract each other, and no chemical changes occur.
When the battery is connected to a generator for charging, the
generator produces positive charges on the positive plate, and
negative charges on the negative plate. The positive charges
on the positive plate will attract all the negatively charged ions,
while the negative charges on negative plate will attract all
the positively charged ions. As a result, the lead and hydrogen
ions start to move toward the negative plate, and the sulphate
and oxygen ions toward the positive plate. The Pb** which be-
gins to move from the positive to the negative plate meets imme-
diately with the 20° and PbO, is formed. This seems to then
become PbO,”*. The positive charges on the positive plates
attract the PbO, ~, and the latter is deposited on the plate as
ordinary lead peroxide. The Pb** at the negative plate, is at-
tracted by the negative charges on the negative plate, and since
the Pb*t is on the negative plate it is immediately deposited
as metallic lead, since the negative and positive charges neutralize
one another and take the charge away from the lead. This
gives us the changes which occur at the plates so as to give us
the lead and lead peroxide of a charged battery. We still need
sulphuric acid however. At the positive plate, the sulphate ion
meets the hydrogen ion, which is free to travel toward the nega-
tive plate, and sulphuric acid is formed. At the negative plate,
the sulphate ion starts to move toward the positive plate, but
meets the hydrogen ion which is moving toward the negative
plate, and sulphurie acid is formed, although half of the acid is
always separated into hydrogen and sulphate. This accounts
for all the materials.

HOW CHEMICAL ACTIONS PRODUCE ELECTRICITY 25

We have thus taken the battery through a charge and dis-
charge, both chemically, and electrically. The actions described
for discharge take place faster when a heavy current is drawn
from the battery. The speed of the charge actions depends
upon the voltage of the generator, the motions of the ions being
increased in speed as the voltage is increased. As far as current
flow in and out of the battery is concerned, this depends upon
the positive and negative charges on the positive and negative
plates. When the battery is discharging, these charges will pass
into the external circuit with increasing speed as the resistance
of the circuit decreases. When the battery is being charged, the
charges on the plate attract the charges on the ions, and when
the charges reach the plates, the opposite charges on lon and
plate neutralize one another. The result of the ions travelling in
opposite directions in the electrolyte is to produce a current
which seems to flow in only one direction in the external circuit.
The ions of the lead, lead peroxide, and lead sulphate all tend
to move toward one or the other battery plate, but because they
are so few in number, and because there are so many hydrogen
and sulphate ions in the electrolyte, they have hardly begun
to move before they combine with the ions of the acid to form
lead sulphate and water. Hence, the ions of the active plate
materials move exceedingly minute distances. Those of the acid,
especially the hydrogen ion, move through all parts of the elec-
trolyte. The chemical actions take place not only at the out-
side surfaces of the plates, but wherever acid, lead or lead perox-
ide, or lead sulphate come in contact with each other. We know
that the acid soaks in to all parts of the plates, and therefore
the actions take place throughout the entire plate. The materials
on the plates must therefore be porous in order to allow the acid
to soak into them easily.

The “pasted” plate is used almost entirely for starting and
lighting service. The plates are not made entirely of the spongy
lead and lead peroxide. Neither of these substances are tough
enough to be made into plates. They must, therefore, be held
in place. We thus find that each plate consists of a skeleton
framework of lead, the pastes filling up the spaces between the
ribs.

CHAPTER 5.
LOSS OF CHARGE IN AN IDLE BATTERY.

Before taking up the study of discharge by drawing a current

from the battery, let us see what happens if a fully charged —

battery is allowed to stand idle on open circuit, that is, with no

wires or cabes attached to its terminals. It has been found that :
such a battery will gradually become discharged and that it |

must be given an ocasional ‘‘freshening’’ charge.

Now, as we have learned, when a battery discharges lead sul-
phate forms on each plate, and acid is taken from the electro-
lyte as the sulphate forms. In our idle battery, therefore, such
actions must be taking place. The only difference in this case is
that the sulphate forms without any current passing through the
battery. The actions at the lead and lead peroxide must, there-
fore, be independent of each other. At the lead peroxide plate we
have lead peroxide paste, lead grid, and sulphuric acid. These
are all the elements needed to produce a storage battery, and
as the lead peroxide and the lead are touching each other, each
lead peroxide plate really forms a short circuited cell. Why
does this plate not discharge itself completely? A certain amount
of discharge does take place, and results in a layer of lead sul-
phate forming between the lead peroxide and the grid. The sul-
phate, having high resistance then protects the lead grid and
prevents any further action. This discharge action therefore does
not continue, but causes a loss of a certain part of the charge.

At the negative plate, we have pure spongy lead, and the grid.
This grid is not composed entirely of lead, but contains a per-
eentage of antimony, a metal which makes the grid harder and
stronger. There is but very little difference of potential between
the spongy lead and the grid. A small amount of lead sulphate
does form, however, on the surface of the negative plate. This
is due to the action between the spongy lead and the electrolyte.

LOSS OF CHARGE IN AN IDLE BATTERY 27

Some of the lead combines with the acid to form lead sulphate,
but after a small amount has been formed the action is stopped
because a balanced chemical condition is soon obtained.

Thus only a small amount of lead sulphate is formed at each
plate, and the cell thereby loses only a small part of its charge.
In a perfectly constructed battery the discharge would then stop.
The only further action which would take place would be the
slow evaporation of the water of the electrolyte. As the level
of the electrolyte dropped below the tops of the plates, crystalliza-
tion and sulphation would take place on the part of the negative
plate above the electrolyte. The loss of charge which actually
occurs in an idle charged battery is greater than that due to the
formation of the small amounts of sulphate on the plates, and the
evaporation of the water from the electrolyte.

Does an idle cell discharge itself by decomposing its electro-
lyte? We have a difference of potential of about two volts
between the lead and lead peroxide plate. Why is the electro-
lyte not decomposed by this difference? At first it might seem
that the water and acid should be separated into its parts, and
hydrogen liberated at the negative plate. As a matter of fact,
very little hydrogen gas is set free in an idle charged cell be-
eause to do so would require a voltage of about 2.5. At two
volts, so little gas is formed that the loss of charge due to it
may be neglected entirely.

The greatest loss of charge in an idle battery results from con-
ditions arising from the processes of manufacture, internal
troubles, and leakage between terminals. The grids of a cell
are an alloy of lead and antimony. These are mixed while in a
molten condition, and are then allowed to cool. If the cooling is
not done properly, or if a poor grade of antimony is used, the
resulting grid is not a uniform mixture of antimony and lead.
There will be areas of pure lead, with an air hole here and there.
The lack of uniformity in the grid material results in a local dis-
charge in the grid. This causes-some loss of charge.

If the active material completely fills the spaces between the
grids, the acid formed as the cell is charged may not be able to
diffuse into the main body of the electrolyte, but forms a small
pocket of acid in the plate. This acid will cause a discharge between

28 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

paste and grid and a coating of lead sulphate forms on the grid,
resulting in a certain loss of charge.

In the process of manufacturing and ‘‘forming’’ plates, graph-
ite 1s sometimes used to give porosity to the paste, resulting
in local action which causes a loss of charge. In general
any metallic impurity in a cell will cause a loss at the lead
plate. When a cell is charged, the current causes the metals
to deposit on the lead plate. Local cells are formed by the metal-
lic impurity, the lead plate, and the acid, and these tiny cells will
discharge completely, causing a loss of charge. Such metals
include iron, copper, tin, arsenic, antimony, and platmum. Of
these, iron is perhaps the most destructive, as it travels back
and forth from plate to plate, causing a loss of charge. The
ions of this metal absorb an additional amount of electricity at
the peroxide plate which they carry to the lead plate and there

lose it. This action is continuous, and even a small amount of |

iron in an idle cell can cause an appreciable loss of charge in
one day.

Incomplete removal of forming agents causes some local ac- |

tion in an idle cell which results in a loss of charge. Such sub-
stances are supposed to have been removed automatically as
the forming process is completed, but some may remain and
cause trouble.

Another cause of loss of charge in an idle cell is leakage of
current between the terminals on the outside of the battery. Dur-
ing charge, the bubbles of gas which escape from the electrolyte
carry with them minute quantities of acid which may deposit on

——

the top of the battery and gradually form a thin conducting |

layer of electrolyte through which a current will flow from the
positive to the negative terminals. This danger may be avoided
by carefully wiping any moisture from the battery. Condensation
of moisture from the air, on the top or sides and bottom of a
battery will cause the same condition. This will be especially
noticeable if a battery is kept in a damp place.

Impurities in any form are therefore to be guarded against.
The use of impure acid or water will introduce objectionable
substances. Every impurity causes local actions which cause
a loss of charge and shorten the life of the battery.

—__ er

CHAPTER 6.
THE DISCHARGE PHENOMENA.

Considered chemically, the discharge of a storage battery con-
sists of the changing of the spongy lead and lead peroxide into
lead sulphate, and the abstraction of the acid from the electro-
lyte. Considered electrically, the changes are more complex, and
require further investigation. The voltage, internal resistance,
rate of discharge, capacity, and other features must be considered,

CELL VOLTAGE

IZ 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 3 2 3
TIME OF CHARGE —-MINUTE S&S

Fig. 11

and the effects of changes in one upon the others must be studied.
This proceeding is simplified considerably if we consider each
point separately. The abstraction of the acid from the electro-
lyte gives us the most reliable method of determining the con-
dition of charge or discharge in the battery, and must also be
studied.

30 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

Voltage Changes During Discharge. At the end of a charge.
and before opening the charging circuit, the voltage of each cell
is about 2.6 to 2.7 volts. As soon as the charging circuit is opened,
the cell voltage drops rapidly to about 2.1 volts, within three or
four minutes. This is due to the formation of a thin layer of
lead sulphate on the surface of the negative plate and between
the lead peroxide and the metal of the positive plate. Figure 11
shows how the voltage changes during the last eight minutes of
charge, and how it drops rapidly as soon as the charging circuit is
opened. The final value of the voltage after the charging circuit
is opened is about 2.15-2.18 volts. This is more fully explained in

Chapter 7. If a current is drawn from the battery at the instant —

VOLTS
2.2

the charge is stopped, this drop is more rapid. At the beginning ,

of the discharge the voltage has already had a rapid drop from
the final voltage on charge, due to the formation of sulphate as
explained above. When a current is being drawn from the bat-

tery, the sudden drop is due to the internal resistance of the |

cell, the formation of more sulphate, and the abstracting of the

acid from the electrolyte which fills the pores of the plate. The ©

density of this acid is high just before the discharge is begun.
It is diluted rapidly at first, but a balanced condition is reached
between the density of the acid in the plates and in the main
body of the electrolyte, the acid supply in the plates being main-
tained at a lowered density by fresh acid flowing into them from
the main body of electrolyte. After the initial drop, the voltage
decreases more slowly, the rate of decrease depending on the

THE DISCHARGE PHENOMENA 31

amount of curfent drawn from the battery. The entire process
is shown in figure 12. Lead sulphate is being formed on the sur-
faces, and in the body of the plates. This sulphate has a higher
resistance than the lead or lead peroxide, and the internal resis-
tance of the cell rises, and contributes to the drop in voltage. As
this sulphate forms in the body of the plates, the acid is used
up. At first this acid is easily replaced from the main body of
the electrolyte by diffusion. The acid in the main body of the
electrolyte is at first comparatively strong, or concentrated, caus-
ing a fresh supply of acid to flow into the plates as fast as it
is used up in the plates. This results in the acid in the electro-
lyte growing weaker, and this, in turn, leads to a constant de-
crease in the rate at which the fresh acid flows, or diffuses into
the plates. Furthermore, the sulphate, which is more bulky than
the lead or lead peroxide fills the pores in the plate, making it
more and more difficult for acid to reach the interior of the plate.
This increases the rate at which the voltage drops.

The sulphate has another effect. It forms a cover over the
paste which has not been acted upon, and makes it practically
useless, since the acid is almost unable to penetrate the coating
of sulphate. We thus have quantities of active material which
are entirely enclosed in sulphate, thereby cutting down the
amount of energy which can be taken from the battery. Thus the
formation of sulphate throughout each plate and the abstraction
of acid from the electrolyte cause the voltage to drop at a con-
stantly increasing rate.

Theoretically, the discharge may be continued until the voltage
drops to zero, but practically, the discharge should be stopped
when the voltage of each cell has dropped to 1.7. If the dis-
charge is carried on beyond this point all the spongy lead and
lead peroxide have either been changed into lead sulphate, or
have been covered up by the sulphate so effectively that they
are almost useless. Plates in this condition require a very long
charge in order to remove all the sulphate. Another danger
arises if the discharge is continued. The lead of the grid is grad-
ually changed to lead sulphate, and when the cell is recharged,
the sulphate will be changed to spongy lead and lead | peroxide,
and the grid is consequently weakened.

32 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

The cell voltage will rise somewhat every time the discharge
is stopped. This is due to the diffusion of the acid from the
main body of electrolyte into the plates, resulting in an increased
concentration in the plates. If the discharge is continuous, es-
pecially if at a high rate, this rise in voltage will bring the cell
up to its normal voltage very quicky on account of the more rapid
diffusion of acid which will then take place.

The voltage does not depend upon the area of the plate surface
but upon the nature of the active materials and the electrolyte.
Hence, although the plates of a cell are gradually being covered
with sulphate, the voltage measured when no current is flowing,
will fall slowly, and not in proportion to the amount of energy
taken out of the cell. It is not until the plates are pretty
thoroughly covered with sulphate, thus making it difficult for
the acid to reach the active material, that the voltage begins to
drop rapidly. This is shown clearly in figure 12, which shows
that the cell voltage has dropped only a very small amount when
the cell is 50% discharged. With current flowing through the
cell, however, the increased internal resistance causes a marked
drop in the voltage. Open circuit voltage is not useful, therefore
to determine how much energy has been taken from the battery.

Acid Density. The electrolyte of a lead storage battery is a
mixture of chemically pure sulphuric acid, and chemically pure
water, the acid forming about 30 per cent of the volume of elec-
trolyte when the battery is fully discharged. The pure acid

has a ‘‘specific gravity’’ of 1.835, that is, it is 1.835 ag heavy |

as an equal volume of water. The mixture of acid and water
has a specific gravity of about 1.300. As the cell discharges, acid
is abstracted from the electrolyte, and the weight of the latter
must therefore grow less, since there will be less acid in it. The
ehange in the weight, or specific gravity of the electrolyte is
the best means of determining the state of discharge of a cell, pro-
vided that the cell has been used properly. In order that the
value of the specific gravity may be used as an indication of
the amount of energy in a battery, the history of the battery
must be known. Suppose, for instance, that in refilling the bat-
tery to replace the water lost by the natural evaporation which
occurs in the use of a battery, acid, or a mixture of acid and

- |

THE DISCHARGE PHENOMENA 33

water has been used. This will result in the specific gravity
being too high, and the amount of energy in the battery will be
less than that indicated by the specific gravity. Again, if pure
water is used to replace electrolyte which has been spilled,
the specific gravity will be lower than it should be. In a bat-
tery which has been discharged to such an extent that much of
the paste has been covered by a layer of tough sulphate, or if
a@ considerable amount of sulphate and active material has been
loosened from the plates and has dropped to the bottom of the

“SEI —|----}—

CIFIC GRAVITY

91100

LEAT
LEE YET TET

TL cette
‘TCE EAE

70 60 5
RCENT CAPACITY IN BATTERY.

Fig. 183

eells, it will be impossible to bring the specific gravity of the elec-
trolyte up to 1.300, even though a long charge is given. There
must, therefore, be a reasonable degree of certainty that a bat-
tery has been properly handled if the specific gravity readings are
to be taken as a true indication of the condition of a battery.
Where a battery does not give satisfactory service even though
the specific gravity readings are satisfactory, the latter are
not reliable as indicating the amount of charge in the battery.
As long as a discharge current is flowing from the battery, the

34 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY |

acid within the plates is used up and becomes very much diluted. |
Diffusion between the surrounding electrolyte and the acid in

the plates keeps up the supply needed in the plates in order to
carry on the chemical changes. When the discharge is first begun,
the diffusion of acid into the plates takes place rapidly because
there is little sulphate clogging the pores in the paste, and because
there is a greater difference betwéen the concentration of acid in
the electrolyte and in the plates than will exist as the discharge
progresses. As the sulphate begins to form and fill up the pores of
the plates, and as more and more acid is abstracted from the elec-
trolyte, diffusion takes place more slowly.

If a battery is allowed to stand idle for a short time after a
partial discharge, the specific gravity of the electrolyte will de-
crease because some of the acid in the electrolyte will gradually
flow into the pores of the plates to replace the acid used up while
the battery was discharging. Theoretically the discharge can be
continued until all the acid has been used up, and the electro-
lyte is composed of pure water. Experience has shown, how-
ever, that the discharge of the battery should not be continued after
the specific gravity of the electrolyte has fallen to 1.150. As far
as the electrolyte is concerned, the discharge may be carried farther
with safety. The plates determine the point at which the discharge
should be stopped. When the specific gravity has dropped from
1.300 to 1.150, so much sulphate has been formed that it fills all
the pores in the active material on the plates, and is beginning to
form a tough covering over the paste. Figure 13 shows the change
in the density of the acid during discharge.

Changes at the Negative Plate. Chemically, the action at the
negative plate consists only of the formation of lead sulphate
from the spongy lead. The lead sulphate is only slightly soluble
in the electrolyte and is precipitated as soon as it 1s formed,
leaving hydrogen ions, which then go to the lead peroxide plate to
form water with other hydrogen ions and oxygen ions released
at the peroxide plate. The sulphate forms more quickly on the
surface of the plate than in the inner portions because there is a
constant supply of acid available at the surface, whereas the
formation of sulphate in the interior of the plate requires that acid
diffuse into the pores of the spongy lead to replace that already used

————

THE DISCHARGE PHENOMENA 30

up in the formation of sulphate. In the negative plate, however, the
sulphate tends to form more uniformly throughout the mass of
the lead, because the spongy lead is more porous than the lead.
peroxide, and because the acid is not diluted by the formation
of water as in the positive plate. When the discharge has pro-
ceeded until the specific gravity of the electrolyte has decreased
to 1.150, the sulphate has formed a tough coating over the surface
of the plate and has filled the pores of the lead to such an extent
that most of the spongy lead that remains is prevented from re-
acting with the acid because of the high resistance of the sul-
phate covering it. If the discharge is continued beyond this
point, the acid begins to attack the grids and form a layer of
sulphate on them. Subsequent charge will change this sulphate to
spongy lead, thus making the grids weaker by the amount of the
lead which formed the sulphate. ,

The sulphate has a greater volume than the lead from which
it is formed and there is, therefore, an actual increase in the
volume of the paste during discharge. The spongy lead being
tough and coherent, this expansion does not cause the paste to
fall from the plate, but simply results in a bulging out of mate-
rial between the grid bars.

Changes at the Positive Plate. In a fully charged positive plate
we have lead peroxide as the active material. This is composed
of lead and oxygen. From this fact it is plainly evident that
during discharge there is a greater chemical activity at this plate
than at the negative plate, since we must find something to com-
bine with the oxygen in order that the lead may form lead sul-
phate with the acid. In an ideal cell, therefore, the material
which undergoes the greater change should be more porous than
the material which does not involve as great a chemical reaction.
In reality, however, the peroxide is not as porous as the spongy
lead, and does not hold together as well.

The final products of the discharge of a positive plate are lead
sulphate and water. The lead peroxide must first be reduced to
lead, which then combines with the sulphate from the acid to form
lead sulphate, while the oxygen from the peroxide combines with
the hydrogen of the acid to form water. There is, therefore, a
greater activity at this plate than at the lead plate, and the forma-

36 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

tion of the water dilutes the acid in and around the plate so that
the tendency is for the chemical actions to be retarded. When
.the discharge has just begun, the positive plate grows darker in
color, showing that the lead sulphate at first forms a definite
compound with the lead peroxide. As the discharge progresses,
the sulphate begins to form in white scales on the surface of the
plate.

The sulphate causes the active material to bulge out because
it occupies more space than the peroxide. This causes the lead
peroxide at the surface to begin falling to the bottom of the jar
in fine dust-like particles, since the peroxide here holds together
very poorly.

The abstraction of acid from the electrolyte takes place at both
plates, of course, but the positive has an additional handicap on
account of the water formed in its pores. Experiments have
shown that in order to have the peroxide plate working at its
greatest capacity, the density of the electrolyte should be more
than 1.300, while the negative has the greatest capacity when
the electrolyte has a density of 1.220. The discharge of the bat-
tery, therefore, tends to have the negative operating at its great-
est capacity, while the conditions at the positive are just oppo-
site from what they should be in order to obtain the greatest |
eapacity from this plate.

CHAPTER 7.
THE CHARGE PHENOMENA.

Voltage. Starting with a battery which has been discharged
until its voltage has decreased to 1.7 per cell, we pass a current
through it and cause the voltage to rise steadily. Figure 14 shows
the changes in voltage during charge. Ordinarily the voltage
begins to rise immediately and uniformly. If, however, the bat-
tery has been left in a discharged condition for some time, or has
been ‘‘over discharged,’’ the voltage rises very rapidly for a
fraction of the first minute of charge and then drops rapidly to

j z BS 4 5
HOURS ON CHARGE
Fig. 14

the normal value and thereafter begins to rise steadily to the end
of the charge. This rise at the beginning of the charge is due
to the fact that the density of the acid in the pores of the plates
rises rapidly at first, the acid thus formed being prevented from
diffusing into the surrounding electrolyte by the coating of
sulphate. As soon as this sulphate is broken through, diffusion
takes place and the voltage drops.

As shown in Figure 14 the voltage remains almost constant
between the points M and N. At N the voltage begins to rise
because the charging chemical reactions are taking place farther
and farther in the inside parts of the plate, and the concentrated
acid formed by the chemical actions in the plates is diffusing

38 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY |

into the main electrolyte. This increases the battery voltage
and requires a higher charging voltage.

- At the point marked O, the voltage begins to rise very rapidly.
This is due to the fact that the amount of lead sulphate in the |
plates is decreasing very rapidly, allowing the battery voltage
to rise and thus increasing the charging voltage. Bubbles of
gas are now rising through the electrolyte.

At P, the last portions of lead sulphate are removed, acid is
no longer being formed, and hydrogen and oxygen gas are formed |
rapidly. The gas forces the last of the concentrated acid out
of the plates and in fact, equalizes the acid concentration through-
out the whole cell, Thus no further changes can take place, and |
the voltage becomes constant at R.

Density of Electrolyte. Discharge should be stopped when the
density of the electrolyte, as measured with a hydrometer, is
1.150. When we pass a charging current through the battery,
acid is produced by the chemical actions which take place in the
plates. This gradually diffuses with the main electrolyte and
causes the hydrometer to show a higher density than before. This
increase in density continues steadily until the battery begins to |
‘‘ovas’’ freely. ‘‘Gassing’’ causes the electrolyte in the plates to
mix thoroughly with that surrounding the plates and also in- |
creases the volume of the electrolyte and consequently decreases
its density.

The progress of the charge is always determined by the density
of the electrolyte. For this purpose in automobile batteries, a
hydrometer is placed in a glass syringe having a short length of
rubber tubing at one end, and a large rubber bulb at the other.
The rubber tube is inserted in the cell and enough electrolyte ©
drawn up into the syringe to float the hydrometer so as to be
able to obtain a reading. This subject will be treated more fully
in a later chapter.

Changes at Negative Plate. The charging current changes lead
sulphate into spongy lead, and acid is formed. The acid is mixed
with the diluted electrolyte outside of the plates, resulting in a
rise in temperature. This is not objectionable unless the tem- ,
perature rises to more than 105° F., since the concentrated acid
formed in the plates diffuses into the electrolyte more rapidly

THE CHARGE PHENOMENA 39

as the temperature is increased, thus hastening the charging
actions. As the charging proceeds the active material shrinks or
contracts, and the weight of the plate actually decreases on
account of the difference between the weight and volume of the
lead sulphate and spongy lead. If the cell has had only a normal
discharge and the charge is begun soon after the discharge ended,
the charge will proceed quickly and without an excessive rise in
temperature. If, however, the cell has been discharged too far,
or has been in a discharged condition for some time, the lead sul-
phate will not be in a finely divided state as it should be, but
will be hard and tough and will have formed an insulating coat-
ing over the active material, causing the charging voltage to be
high, and the charge will proceed slowly. When most of the lead
sulphate has been reduced to spongy lead, the charging current
will be greater than is needed to carry on the chemical actions,
and will simply decompose the water into hydrogen and oxygen,
and the cell ‘‘gasses.’’ Spongy lead is rather tough and coherent,
and the bubbles of gas which form in the pores of the negative
plate near the end of the charge force their way to the surface
without dislodging any of the active material.

Changes at the Positive Plate. When a cell has been dis-
charged, a portion of the lead peroxide has been changed to lead
sulphate, which has lodged in the pores of the paste and on its
surface. During charge, the lead combines with oxygen from the
water to form lead peroxide, and acid is formed. This acid dif-
fuses into the electrolyte as fast as the amount of sulphate will
permit. If the discharge has been carried so far that a consider-
able amount of sulphate has formed in the pores and on the sur-
face of the plate, the action proceeds very slowly, and unless a
moderate charging current is used, gassing begins before the
charge is complete, simply because the sulphate cannot absorb
the current. The gas bubbles which originate in the interior of
the plate force their way to the surface, and in so doing cause
numerous fine particles of active material to break off and fall
to the bottom of the jar. This happens because the lead per-
oxide is a granular, non-coherent substance, with the particles
held together very loosely, and the gas breaks off a considerable
amount of active material.

CHAPTER 8.
CAPACITY OF STORAGE BATTERIES.

The capacity of a storage battery is the amount of electrical
energy which can be obtained from it. The unit in which capacity
is measured is the ampere-hour. Theoretically, a battery has a
capacity of 40 ampere-hours if it furnishes ten amperes for four
hours, and if it is unable, at the end of that time, to furnish any
more current. If we drew only five amperes from this battery,
it should be able to furnish this current for eight hours. Thus,
theoretically, the capacity of a battery should be the same, no
matter what current is taken from it. That is, the current in
amperes, multiplied by the number of hours the battery furnished
this current should be constant.

In practice, however, we do not discharge a battery to a lower
voltage than 1.7 per cell, on account of the increasing amount of
sulphate and the difficulty with which this is subsequently re-
moved and changed into lead and lead peroxide. The capacity of
a storage battery is therefore measured by the number of ampere
hours it ean furnish before its voltage drops below 1.7 per cell.
This definition assumes that the discharge is a continuous one, that
we start with a fully charged battery and discharge it continu-
ously until its voltage drops to 1.7 per cell. |

The factors upon which the capacity of storage batteries depend
may be grouped in two main classifications:

1. Design and Construction of Battery.
2. Conditions of Operation.
Each classification may be subdivided. Under the Design and
Construction we have:
(a) Area of plate surface.
(b) Quantity, arrangement, and porosity of active mate-
rials.
40

CAPACITY OF STORAGE BATTERIES 41

These sub-classifications require further explanation. Taking
them in order:

(a) Area of Plate Surface. It is evident that the chemical
and electrical activity of a battery are greatest at the surface of
the plates since the acid and active material are in intimate con-
tact here, and a supply of fresh acid is more readily available to
replace that which is depleted as the battery is discharged. This
is especially true with high rates of discharge, such as are caused
in starting automobile engines. Therefore, the capacity of a
battery will be greater if the surface area of its plates is increased.
With large plate areas a greater amount of acid and active mate-
rials are available, and an increse in capacity results.

(b) Quantity, Arrangement, and Porosity of Active Materials.
Since the lead and lead peroxide are changed to lead sulphate
on discharge, it is evident that the greater the amount of these
materials, the longer can the discharge continue, and hence the
greater the capacity.

The arrangement of the active materials is also important,
since the acid and pastes must be in contact in order to produce
electricity. Consequently the capacity will be greater in a battery,
all of whose active material is in contact with the acid, than in one
in which the acid reaches only a portion of the active materials. It
is also important that all parts of the plates carry the same amount
of current, in order that the pastes may be used evenly. As a
result of these considerations, we find that the active materials are
supported on grids of lead, that the plates are made thin, and that
they have large surface areas. For heavy discharge currents, such
as starting motor currents, it is essential that there be large sur-
face areas. Thick plates with smaller surface areas are more suit-
able for low discharge rates.

Since the inner portions of the active materials must have a
plentiful and an easily renewable supply of acid, the active mate-
rials must be porous in order that diffusion may be easy and rapid.

(c) Quantity and Strength of Electrolyte. It is important that
there be enough electrolyte in order that the acid may not become
exhausted while there is still considerable active material left.

42 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

An insufficient supply of electrolyte makes it impossible to obtain
the full capacity from a battery. On the other hand, too much
electrolyte, due either to filling the battery too full, or to having
the plates in a jar that holds too much electrolyte, results in an
increase in capacity. There is a danger present however, because
with an excess of electrolyte the plates will be discharged before
the specific gravity of the electrolyte fails to 1.150. This results
in overdischarge of the battery yith its attendant troubles as will
be described more fully in a later chapter.

It ig a universal custom to consider a battery discharged when
the specific gravity of the electrolyte has dropped to 1.150, and
that it is fully charged when the specific gravity of the electro-
lyte has risen to 1.300. The condition of the plates is, however,
the true indicator of charged or discharged condition. With
the correct amount of electrolyte, its specific gravity is 1.150
when the plates have been discharged as far as it is considered
safe, and is 1.300 when the plates are fully charged. When
electrolyte is therefore poured into a battery, it is essential that
it contains the proper proportion of acid and water in order
that its specific gravity readings be a true indicator of the
condition of the plates as to charge or discharge, and hence show
accurately how much energy remains in the eell at any time.

A question which may be considered at this point is why in
automobile work a specific gravity of 1.300 is adopted for the
electrolyte of a fully charged cell. There are several reasons.
The voltage of a battery increases as the specific gravity goes up.
Hence, with a higher density, a higher voltage can be obtained.
If the density were increased beyond this point, the acid would
attack the lead grids and the separators, and considerable corro-
sion would result. Another danger of high density is that of
sulphation, as explained in a later chapter. Another factor which
enters is the resistance of the electrolyte. It is desirable that
this be as low as possible. If we should make resistance measure-
ments on various mixtures of acid and water, we should find that
with a small percentage of acid, the resistance is high. As the
amount of acid is increased, the resistance will grow less up to
a certain point. Beyond this point, the resistance will increase
again aS more acid is added to the mixture. The resistance is

CAPACITY OF STORAGE BATTERIES 43

lowest when the acid forms 30% of the total weight of the electro-
lyte. Thus, if the electrolyte is made too strong, the plates and
also the separators will be attached by the acid, and the resistance
of the electrolyte will also increase. The voltage increases as the
proportion of acid is increased, but the other factors limit the
concentration. If the electrolyte is diluted, its resistance rises,
voltage drops, and the amount of acid is insufficient to give much
eapacity. The density of 1.300 i therefore a compromise between
the various factors mentioned above. 7

(d) Circulation of Electrolyte. This refers to the passing o
electrolyte from one plate to another, and depends upon the ease
with which the acid can pass through the pores of the separators.
A porous separator allows more energy to be drawn from the
battery than a non-porous one.

Considering now the operating conditions, we find several items
to be taken into account. The most important are

(e) Rate of discharge.
(f) Temperature. :

(e) Rate of Discharge. As mentioned above, the ampere hour
rating of a battery is based upon a continuous discharge, starting
with a specific gravity of 1.300, and finishing with 1.150. The
end of the discharge is also considered to be reached when the
voltage per cell has dropped to 1.7. With moderate rates of
discharge the acid is abstracted slowly enough to permit the
acid from outside the plates to diffuse into the pores of the
plates and keep up the supply needed for the chemical actions.
With increased rates of discharge the supply of acid is used up
so rapidly that the diffusion is not fast enough to hold up the
voltage. This fact is shown clearly by tests made to determine
the time required to discharge a 100 Amp. Hr., 6 volt battery
to 4.5 volts. With a discharge rate of 25 amperes, it required 160
minutes. With a discharge rate of 75 amperes, it required 34
minutes. From this we see that making the discharge rate
three times as great caused the battery to be discharged in one
fifth the time. These discharges were continuous, however, and
if the battery were allowed to rest, the voltage would soon rise
sufficiently, to burn the lamps for a number of hours.

The conditions of operation in automobile work are usually

44 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

considered severe. In starting the engine, a heavy current is
drawn from the battery for a few seconds. The generator starts
charging the battery immediately afterward, and the starting
energy is soon replaced. As long as the engine runs, there is no
load on the battery, as the generator will furnish the. current
for the lamps, and also send a slight charge into the battery.
If the lamps are not used, the entire generator output is utilized
to charge the battery, unless some current is furnished to the
ignition system. Overcharge is quite possible.

When the engine is not running, the lamps are the only load
on the battery, and there is no charging current. Various drivers
have various driving conditions. Some use their starter fre-
quently, and make only short runs. Their batteries run down.
Other men use the starter very seldom, and take long tours.
Their batteries will be overcharged. The best thing that can
be done is to set the generator for an output that will keep the
battery charged under average conditions.

From the results of actual tests, it may be said that modern
lead-acid batteries are not injured in any way by the high dis-
charge rate used when a starting motor cranks the engine. It is
the rapidity with which fresh acid takes the place of that used
in the pores of the active materials that affects the capacity of a
battery at high rates, and not any limitation in the plates them-
selves. Low rates of discharge should, in fact, be avoided more
than the high rates. Battery capacity is affected by discharge
rates, only when the discharge is continuous, and the reduction in
capacity caused by the high rates of continuous discharge does not
oceur if the discharge is an intermittent one, such as is actually
the case in automobile work. The tendency now is to design bat-
teries to give their rated capacity in very short discharge periods.
If conditions should demand it, these batteries would be sold to
give their rated capacity while operating intermittently at a
rate which would completely discharge them in three or four
minutes. The only change necessary for such high rates of dis-
eharge is to provide extra heavy terminals to carry the heavy
current.

The Society of Automotive Engineers, in January, 1914, adopted

—/

CAPACITY OF STORAGE BATTERIES. 45

a standard method of rating, starting and lighting batteries, as
follows: |

‘‘Batteries for combined lighting and starting service shall
have two ratings, of which the first shall indicate the lighting
ability, and the capacity in ampere hours of the battery when
discharged continuously at a 5 ampere rate to a final voltage
of 1.8 per cell, the temperature of the battery beginning such
discharge being 80°F. The second rating shall indicate starting
ability and shall be the rate in amperes at which the battery
will discharge for twenty minutes continuously to a final voltage
‘of not less than 1.65 per cell. The temperature of the battery
beginning such discharge to be 80°F.”’

The discharge rate required under the average starting con-
ditions is higher than that specified above, and would cause the
required drop in voltage in about fifteen minutes. In winter,
when an engine is cold and stiff, the work required from the bat-
tery is even more severe, the discharge rate being equivalent in
amperes to probably four or five times the ampere-rating of
the battery. On account of the rapid recovery of a battery after
a discharge at a very high rate, it seems advisable to allow a bat-
tery to discharge to a voltage of 1.0 per cell when cranking an
engine which is extremely cold and stiff.

(f) Temperature. Chemical reactions take place much more
readily at high temperatures than at low. Furthermore, the
active materials are more porous, the electrolyte lighter, and
the internal resistance less at higher temperatures. Opposed to
this is the fact that at high temperatures, the acid attacks the
grids and pastes, and lead sulphate is formed, even though no
current is taken from the battery. Other injurious effects are
the destructive actions of hot acid on the wooden separators used
in most starting and lighting batteries. Greater expansion of
paste will also occur, and this expansion is not, in general, uni-
form over the surface of the plates. This results in unequal
strains and the plates are bent out of shape, or ‘‘buckled.’’ The
expansion of the paste will also cause much of it to fall from
the plates, and we then have ‘‘shedding.’’

When sulphurie acid is poured into water, a marked tempera-
ture rise takes place. When a battery is charged, acid is formed.

46 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

and when this mixes with the diluted electrolyte, a temperature
rise occurs. In discharging, acid is taken from the electrolyte,
and the temperature drops. On charging, therefore, there is
danger of overheating, while on discharge, excessive tempera-
tures are not likely. Fig. 15 shows the temperature changes on
charge and discharge.

Another factor which should be considered in connection with
capacity is the age of the battery. New batteries will seldom

Pi TT INT TTT

- 1.0

Vit tt tt tty

van
KEE EA
NERD e

CELL TEMP ABOVE ROOM TEMP (DEG.CENT)

ENR,

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ul

give their rated capacity when received from the manufacturer.
This is due to the methods of making the plates. The ‘‘paste’”
plates, such as are used in automobiles, are made by applying
oxides of lead, mixed with sulphuric acid, to the grids. These
oxides must be subjected to a charging current in order to pro-
duce the spongy lead and lead peroxide. After the charge, they
must be discharged, and then again charged. This is necessary
because not all of the oxides are changed to active material on
one charge, and repeated charges and discharges are required

CAPACITY OF STORAGE BATTERIES AT

to produce the maximum amount of active materials. Manu-
facturers do not charge and discharge a battery a sufficient num-
ber of times before sending it out, and after a battery is put
into use, its capacity will increase for some time, because more
active material is produced during each charge.

When a battery has been in use for some time, a considerable
portion of the paste will have fallen from the positive plates, and
a decrease in capacity will result. Such a battery will charge
faster than a new one because the amount of sulphate which
has formed when the battery is discharged is less than in a newer
battery. - Hence, the time required to reduce this sulphate will
be less, and the battery will ‘‘come up’’ faster on charge.

CHAPTER 9.

INTERNAL RESISTANCE,

The resistance offered by a storage battery to the flow of a
current through it results in a loss of voltage, and in heating.
Its value should be as low as possible, and, in fact, it is almost
negligible even in small batteries, seldom rising above 0.05 ohm.
On charge, it causes the charging voltage to be higher and on

discharge causes a loss of voltage.
tion in resistance.

Figure 16 shows the varia-

7 TT
yf TTT an

6 See on
728 GRR an
eee eee an
oe ee
‘2 CR
see
eT INTE ELE reer
7 Nee see
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Fig. 16

The resistance aS measured between the terminals of a cell

is made up of several factors as follows:

1. Grids. This includes the resistance of the terminals, con-
necting links, and the framework upon which the active materials
are pasted. This is but a small part of the total resistance, and
does not undergo any considerable change during charge and
discharge. It increases slightly as its temperature goes up.

INTERNAL RESISTANCE 49

2. Electrolyte. This refers to the electrolyte between the
plates, and varies with the amount of acid and with tempera-
ture. As mentioned in the preceding chapter, a mixture of acid
and water in which the acid composes thirty per cent of the
total weight of electrolyte has the minimum resistance. Diluting
or increasing the concentration of the electrolyte will both cause
an increase in resistance from the minimum value. The expla-
nation probably lies in the degree to which the acid is split up
into ‘‘ions’’ of hydrogen (H), and sulphate (SO,). These ‘‘ions’’
earry the current through the electrolyte. Starting with a cer-
tain amount of acid, let us see how the ionization progresses.
With very concentrated acid, ionization does not take place, and
hence, there are no ions to carry current. As we mix the acid
with water, ionization occurs. The more water used, the more
ions, and hence, the less the resistance, because the number of
ions available to carry the current increases. The ionization in-
creases to a certain maximum degree, beyond which no more ions
are formed. It is probable that an electrolyte containing thirty
per cent of acid by weight is at’: its maximum degree of ioniza-
tion and hence its lowest resistance. If more water is now added,
no more ions are formed. Furthermore, the number of ions per
unit volume of electrolyte will now decrease on acccunt of the
increased amount of water. There will therefore be fewer ions
per unit volume to carry the current, and the resistance of the
electrolyte increases.

With an electrolyte of a given concentration, an increase of
temperature will cause a decrease in resistance. A decrease in
temperature will, of course, cause an increase in resistance. It
is true, in general, that the resistance of the electrolyte is about
half of the total resistance of the cell. The losses due to this re-
sistance generally form only one per cent of the total losses, and
are a practically negligible factor.

3. Active Material. This includes the resistance of the pastes
and the electrolyte in the pores of the active materials. This varies
considerably during charge and discharge. It has been found that
the resistance of the peroxide plate changes much more than that of
the lead plate. The change in resistance of the positive plate is
especially marked near the end of a discharge. The composi-

20 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

tion of the attive material, and the contact between it and the
grid affect the resistance considerably.

During charge, the current is sent into the cell from an external
source. The grids therefore carry most of the current. The
active material which first reacts with the acid is that near the

surface of the plate, and the acid formed by the charging current |

mixes readily with the main body of electrolyte. Gradually, the
eharging action takes place in the inner portions of the plate,
and concentrated acid is formed in the pores of the plate. As
the sulphate is removed, however, the acid has little difficulty
in mixing with the main body of electrolyte. The change in
resistance on the charge is therefore not considerable.

During discharge, the chemical action also begins at the sur-
face of the plates and gradually moves inward. In this ease,
however, sulphate is formed on the surface first, and it becomes
increasingly difficult for the fresh acid from the electrolyte to
diffuse into the plates so as to replace the acid which has been

greatly diluted there by the discharge actions. There is therefore |

an increase in resistance because of the dilution of the acid at the
point of activity. Unless a cell is discharged too far, however,
the increase in resistance is small.

If a battery is allowed to stand idle for a long time it grad-
ually discharges itself, as explained in a previous chapter. This
is due to the formation of a tough coating of crystallized lead
sulphate, which is practically an insulator. These crystals gradu-
ally cover and incapsulate the active material. The percentage
change is not high, and generally, amounts to a few per cent
only. The chief damage caused by the excessive sulphation is

therefore not an increase in resistance, but consists chiefly of mak- |

ing a poor contact between active material and grid, and of re-
moving much of the paste from action by covering it.

CHAPTER 10.
BATTERY DISEASES.

Storage batteries have their own peculiar troubles which pro-
duce injuries that are not always curable. The chief troubles
met with are as follows:

1. Sulphation.

2. Loss of capacity.

3. Buckling of plates in battery.

4. Hardening of negative plates when exposed to air.

5. Buckling of positive plates when exposed: to light.

6. Internal discharge. |

These troubles are not entirely independent of one another,
since the causes of one of them may include some of the ethers.

1. Sulphation: Many battery men say a battery is sulphated
whenever anything is wrong with it. Sulphation is the forma-
tion of lead sulphate on the plates. As a battery discharges, it
is entirely natural and normal for lead sulphate to form. When
the voltage of a battery has dropped to about 1.7 per cell, there is
still a considerable portion of active material left, but much of it
is covered by sulphate and thus made useless. A normal charge
will change this sulphate to active material. If the discharge is
continued after the voltage has dropped to 1.7 per cell, so much
sulphate has been formed that it is difficult to change it to active
material. Moreover, the expansion of the paste which takes
place when lead sulphate is formed may be so great that it
causes the paste to break off from the plate and fall to the bot-
tom of the jar.

If a battery is charged and discharged intermittently, and the
discharge is greater than the charge, the battery may never be
fully charged, and there will always be sulphate present. If a
battery which has been discharged is allowed to stand idle for
several months, the sulphate which was formed during the dis-

D2 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

charge changes. Instead of being finely divided, it now forms
crystals which grow by the addition of sulphate from other parts
of the plates. These crystals can be reduced to active material
only with the greatest difficulty, and often it is impossible to
do so.

Another factor which aids in the ‘‘sulphation,’’ is the self-
discharge caused by impurities. These cause local actions which
partly discharge the battery and add their quotas of sulphate. A
completely charged battery can, in an emergency, be left idle for
six months without causing an excessive amount of sulphate to
form and crystallize.

Usually, most of the sulphate is formed by the chemical actions
which produce the electrical energy. Useless chemical action
occurs however between paste and electrolyte which result in the
formation of lead sulphate even though no current is taken from
the battery. Thus a certain amount of sulphate forms on the sur-
face of the spongy lead and between the lead peroxide and the
positive grids. Since these are entirely normal actions, they can
hardly be classified as diseases. If there is too much acid in the
electrolyte, or its temperature is allowed to become too high, an
abnormal amount of sulphate is formed, because hot concentrated
acid is more active chemically than the normal electrolyte.

Over-sulphation is often caused by the loosening of the active
material and consequent short circuit between the plates. Sulpha-
tion from any cause may result in shedding, buckling, loss of ca- |
pacity, loss of efficiency and an increased temperature while
charging and discharging. The voltage of a sulphated battery |
will be below normal on discharge and above normal on charge.

If the electrolyte is allowed to fall below the tops of the plates,
so that the pastes are exposed to the air, the parts thus exposed
will gradually sulphate, especially on the negative plates. Some ,
of the sulphate is formed because the current heats up those parts
of the grids which are not covered by acid. This heats the pastes
and any acid in them. The sulphate which has been formed by
normal discharge will be dissolved on account of the heat, and
will then form in erystals as the heat dries up the acid. This will
take place on both positive and negative plates. After sulphate
has been formed in this way, no more is formed on the positive

BATTERY DISEASES : D3

plate. On the negative plate, however, the sulphate continues to
form. This is explained as follows:

The negative paste is spongy lead, which is in an unstable chem-
ical condition. The dry spaces between the plates and above the
surface of the electrolyte contain definite amounts of sulphur di-
oxide (SO,), and sulphur trioxide (SO,), liberated during the
chemical reactions of the cell. These unite with the spongy lead
to form lead sulphate. The spongy lead first absorbs oxygen
from the air and becomes oxidized, then combines with the dioxide
and trioxide to form lead sulphate. Gradually the entire nega-
tive active material becomes sulphated in this way. The lead
peroxide does not sulphate when dry because it is in a stable con-
dition. |

Lead sulphate does not form uniformly over the surfaces of
the plates as a battery discharges. At the beginning of a discharge
it is supposed that the lead sulphate forms chemical compounds.
The reason for this belief is that a peroxide plate grows darker at
first instead of lighter as we should expect, since lead sulphate is
white, and a mixture of lead peroxide and lead sulphate should be
lighter than the peroxide alone. After a time, however, patches
of the white sulphate appear on the plate surfaces. If only a nor-
mal discharge is given, it is not difficult to change this sulphate to
active material. If the sulphate is allowed to erystallize, how-
ever, it is a very difficult matter. The crystallized sulphate is
tcugh, and is a good: insulator. Such a plate must be charged at
a low rate, because so much of the active material is covered with
the sulphate that the current cannot reach it. Only a small portion
of the active material is uncovered and hence in contact with the
acid. These parts must carry all the charging current, and if this
current is not low, the small patches of active material which must
earry the current become very hot, resulting in serious injury to
them. Furthermore, if a large charging current is used, the water
of the electrolyte is split into hydrogen and oxygen, and gassing
results. This causes chips of the sulphate to break off and fall to
the bottom of the cell, and thus be removed from action.

Another danger from large charging currents in sulphated
plates is that the parts carrying the current will become hotter

o4 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

than other parts. This results in an unequal expansion of paste
and grids, and the plate may be warped and bent out of shape.

We see, therefore, that the presence of lead sulphate is objec-
tionable only when an excessive amount is formed, or when it be-
comes crystallized. A small amount of sulphate in the positive
plate is desirable, in fact. Lead peroxide does not hold together
well, but a small amount of sulphate acts as a cement and
binds the particles of the paste together. At the surface of
the plate, the sulphate is almost completely removed on charge,
and some of the peroxide loses its hold on the plate and falls to |
the bottom of the cell. This is called ‘‘shedding’’ of the
active material. A battery which is kept slightly undercharged
will have a longer life than one which is continually over-
charged.

The best remedy for a sulphated battery is to pass a charge
of low amperage through the cells for a long time. The charge
rate should not be much above 1/25 of the capacity of the bat-
tery in ampere-hours and should be continued until the specific
gravity has risen to its normal value of 1.280-1.300 and has re-
mained eonstant for three or four hours. At this time all of the
cells should be gassing rather freely. The length of time required
may be from one day to one week of continuous charging or a
succession of charges of equivalent time.

2. Loss of Capacity. This subject may be again subdivided,
as quite a number of factors must be considered. Some of them
are given under the main headings at the beginning of this chap-
ter. They are as follows: |

(a) Impurities in Electrolyte. These result in local action
and self-discharge. They can sometimes be removed by giving
the battery a complete charge, discarding the electrolyte, and
putting in new electrolyte of the proper specific gravity to bring
it to 1.280-1.300 when fully charged.

(b) Low Gravity of Electrolyte. Low gravity may result
from lack of charge, replacing spilled electrolyte or electrolyte
which has leaked out through a cracked jar, with water. This
condition may be remedied by charging until the cells are gassing
freely and no further increase in specific gravity occurs, and
then removing some of the electrolyte and adding electrolyte of

BATTERY DISEASES ay)

1.400 gravity. Then give battery a full charge. It may be
necessary to empty out the old electrolyte and put in new electro-
lyte. If the maximum specific gravity of the old electrolyte
was 1.200, use 1.400 electrolyte, and if the old electrolyte has a
different strength, vary the specific gravity of the new accord-
ingly. ;

(ce) High Gravity of Electrolyte. This is caused by incorrect
mixtures of acid and water in preparing electrolyte, and by
adding raw acid or electrolyte in making up for loss of elec-

trolyte by evaporation. It results in sulphation, burned separa-
tors, or corroded plates, all of which cause a loss of capacity.

(d) Sulphation. This has already been explained.

(e) Pores of Separators Filled With Impurities or Active Ma-
terial From Bulged Plates. This prevents circulation of electro-
lyte, which hinders chemical action and thus reduces capacity.
Generally, a battery in this condition has been neglected or
abused. The plates will probably be found to be in need of re-
pairs, a subject which will be discussed more fully later.

(f) Bulged Active Material on Negative Plates, Causing Poor
Contact Between Paste and Grid. If the lead does not have a
granular appearance, or if active material has not been shed
to any considerable extent, pressing the plates in a vise or press
(see page 215) will remedy the trouble. When the bulged paste
has been pressed back into the grids, it will be necessary to charge
and discharge the battery several times in order to put the spongy
lead in an active condition.

(¢g) lack of Sufficient Charging and Discharging of New
Batteries, Batteries Which Have Been Sulphated, and Rebuilt,
Batteries With New Plates. This can be remedied generally by
eharging and discharging two or three times, and adjusting
electrolyte so as to have proper specific gravity by removing
some of old electrolyte and adding water or 1.400 electrolyte, as
the case may be.

If in doubt as to the battery’s condition, charge it until it
gasses freely, and the specific gravity of the electrolyte does not
inerease over several hours. Now discharge the battery at one
fourth to one fifth of its ampere hour capacity. If, when the
battery voltage has dropped to 1.7 per cell, the battery has de-

06 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

livered fifty to sixty per cent of its ampere hour capacity, based

on its eight hour rate, the battery should give reasonable service.

If convenient, make the cadmium test (see page 266). If this
test shows that the plates of any cell are in a poor condition,

the battery must be opened and the trouble found and repaired |

(see page 187).

(h) Corroded Grids. Caused by nonuniform mixture in
alloy of which grids are made, by the chemical action resulting
from electrolytic decomposition of highly dilute acid in the pores

of the active material, and by the presence of lead dissolving acids |

or their compounds in the electrolyte. The first condition is hope-
less. The second is also, as it occurs in every cell if the dis-
charge is carried too far, or if the plates have a thick layer of
active material when the rate of discharge is high. If the elec-
trolyte contains impurities which attack the lead, the remedy is
to pour out the old electrolyte, and put in fresh, which is known
to be chemically pure.

Corrosion is also the natural result of the action of the acid on
the plates, and is the natural depreciation occurring in the
plates. This can be retarded by keeping the specific gravity of
the electrolyte slightly below that for full charge. This corro-
sion tends to take place most rapidly at the surface of the elec-
trolyte, and the damage at this point can be lessened by keep-
ing the plates covered with electrolyte, and making the terminal
bars and lugs extra large in cross section.

(i) Reversal of Negative Plates. If one cell of a battery has
an internal short circuit, or some other defect which causes it to
lose its charge, the cell will be discharged before the others which
are in series with it, and when this cell is completely discharged,
the other cells will send a current through it in a discharge direc-
tion, and the negative plates will have a coating of lead perox-
ide formed on them, and will assume the characteristics of posi-
tive plates.

This reversal may also be the result of charging a battery in the
wrong direction, on account of reversed charging connections.
The remedy is to charge the battery for a long time in the proper
direction. If the reversal was caused by some defect within the
cell itself, the cause of the defect should be found and removed.

BATTERY DISEASES o7

Such defects may be internal short circuit, local action caused by
impurities, loss of active material, sulphation, ete.

(j) Loss of Active Material, or Shedding. This is a natural
action for positive plates, since the lead peroxide is not coherent,
and as it expands, on discharge, outer layers are forced off, and
fall to the bottom of the jar. Internal short circuits, sulpha-
tion, or buckling of the grids will also cause shedding. The posi-
tive plate becomes extremely thin and gradually wears out, or
ages. Excessive charging rates resulting in violent evolution of
gas. This loosens some of the active material and causes it to
drop to the bottom of the jar. Normal charging rates will cause
shedding in sulphated plates because gassing will take place due
to the fact that the plates do not have enough active material
exposed to the current to use all the current in producing chem-
ical action. A current which is normal for a battery in good
condition is therefore excessive for a sulphated battery.

Should the active material be loosened from the grids and fall
to the bottom of the cell in large quantities, it will not only result
in short circuiting the plates but will also result in a loss of
capacity because of the decreased volume of material remaining
in the grids. Shedding is usually the result of overcharge or
buckling. It is also caused by the addition of raw acid or electro-
lyte in place of water. The remedy is to have the plates repasted
in a battery repair depot that is equipped for such work. A
certain amount of space is left between the bottom of the plates
and the bottom of the cells to care for this sediment but if the
collection is allowed to grow until it touches the plates, short
circuiting will result. The remedy is to have the plates removed
and the cells cleaned at intervals of nine months to one year.

(k) Negative Plates Granulated. The spongy lead tends to
become granulated and dense in structure, and to lose its porosity
so that it resembles ordinary lead. This is a natural and un-
avoidable condition, and is simply. the natural ageing of the
spongy lead.

The remedy for ths condition is to discharge the battery, re-
move the negative plates, place them in a bath of electrolyte of
1.200 specific gravity sulphuric acid, in which sheets of ordinary
lead, 1/16 inch thick are also placed. Current is sent through

58 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

the combination, entering at the negative plates and leaving at
the “‘dummy’’ electrodes of ordinary lead. The spongy lead
first turns into lead monoxide (PBO), and then lead peroxide
(PBO,). When all the spongy lead has been changed to lead
peroxide, the current is reversed. Befcre reversing the current,
however, the electrolyte is poured out and new electrolyte used,
in order that any impurities in the old electrolyte may not be
redeposited on the negative plates. The lead peroxide now
changes back to spongy lead, and when the plates are replaced
and the battery reassembled, it will be found to have regained the
capacity which was lost by the ageing of the spongy lead.

(1) Improperly constructed battery, or one which has been
poorly designed. Inferior materials and poor workmanship
result in a battery of low capacity.

3. Buckling. This is the bending or twisting of plates, and is
caused by unequal expanson of the various parts of the active
material. Buckled plates are saucer shaped, the center portions
expanding more than the edges on account of being less firmly
braced and supported. Any conditions of operation which will
cause excessive or non-uniform expansion of active material will
result in buckling. These conditions are as follows:

(a) Overdischarge. If discharge is carried too far, the expan-
sion of the active material on account of the formation of lead
sulphate will bend the grids out of shape, and may even break
them.

(b) Continued Operation With Battery In a Discharged Con-
dition. When a considerable amount of lead sulphate has formed,
and current is still drawn from the battery, those portions of
the plate which have the least amount of sulphate will carry all
the current, and will therefore become heated and expand. The
parts covered with sulphate will not expand, and the result is

that the parts that do expand will twist the plate out of shape. .

A normal rate of discharge may be sufficient to cause buckling
in a sulphated. plate.
(c) Charging at High Rates. If the charging rate is exces-

oe a va a ve eT

sive, the temperature will rise so high that excessive expansion

will take place. This is usually unequal in the different parts of
the plate, and buckling results. With a battery that has been

BATTERY DISEASES 59

over-discharged, the charging current will be carried by those
parts of the plates which are the least sulphated. These parts
will therefore expand while others will not, and buckling results.

(d) Non-Uniform Distribution of Current Over the Plates. In
a battery which has not been over-discharged, buckling may
result if the current carried by the various parts of the plate is
not uniform on account of faulty design, or careless application
of the paste. This is a fault of the manufacturers, and not the
operating conditions.

(e) Defective Grid Alloy. If the metals of which the grids
are composed are not uniformly mixed throughout the plate, areas
of pure lead may be left here and there, with air holes at various
points. The electrolyte enters these air holes, attacks the lead
and converts the grid partly into active materail. This causes
expansion and consequent distortion and buckling.

Buckling will not necessarily cause trouble, and batteries with
buckled plates may operate satisfactorily for a long time. If,
however, the expansion and twisting has caused much of the
active material to break away from the grid, or has loosened
the active material from the grids, much of the battery capacity
is lost. Another danger is that the lower edges of a plate may
press against the separator with sufficient force to cut through it,
touch the next plate, and cause a short-circuit, and the battery
fails. |

If buckling is caused by defective plates, there is no remedy
except to avoid discharging the plate very far, and protect the
battery from the effects of light and heat. If over-discharge,
or other conditions not resulting from defective plates have
caused buckling, and if the active material has not been loosened
from the grids, or has not dropped to the bottom of the cell,
it is possible to remove the separators, put in boards having
same thickness as the separators, and then slowly and carefully
compress the plates in a vise until restored to shape. If the
buckling has been so excessive that parts of the grids have
broken, much paste has been lost, or a short circuit has resulted,
the only remedy is to install new plates.

4. Hardening of Negatives. When negative plates are exposed
to air, the spongy lead, instead of being soft and finely divided,

60 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

erystallizes and oxidizes, and becomes hard. This causes the
paste to become heated. The acid which remains in the plate
will also heat, and attack the spongy lead. Negative plates
should therefore always be immersed in water or weak electrolyte
when removed from a battery.

5. Buckling of Positive Plates When Exposed to Light. A phe-
nomenon for which no explanation has been found is that positive
plates buckle when exposed to light, the side toward the light
becoming concave. The positive plates should therefore be kept
in a dark box or cupboard when removed from the battery.

6. Internal Discharge. This shows itself by the gradual los:
of charge when a fully or partly charged battery is allowed to
stand idle. The causes are:

(a) Formation of layer of sulphate between the lead peroxide
and the grid. :

(b) Formation of a layer of sulphate on the surface of the
negative plate.

(ec) Impurities in plates which form small cells with the active
materials and by their discharge take away some of the battery
capacity.

These points have already been explained. See page 26.

‘CHAPTER 11.
CONDITIONS OF OPERATION.

The starting and lighting equipment of a gasoline automobile
consists of three principal parts.

1. The Battery.

2. The Starting Motor.

3. The Dynamo or Generator.

The normal course of operation of this system consists of

(a) Cranking the Engine With the Starting Motor. A switch
is operated whereby the battery is connected to the starting
motor, causing the latter to put the engine in motion. As soon
as the gasoline has begun to vaporize, and is mixed with the
correct amount of air, the sparks at the spark plugs ignite the
mixtures of air and gasoline which are drawn into the engine
cylinders. The engine then operates under its own power. The
starting switch is then opened, disconnecting the motor from
the battery. As long as the engine now continues to run under
its own power, the starting motor is not used. |

(b) Charging the Battery. The current taken by the start-
ing motor is a heavy one, and discharges the battery to a con-
siderable extent. The energy taken out must therefore be re-
placed. This is done by the dynamo. It is important, however,
that the dynamo should not be connected to the battery until
the engine is operating above a certain minimum speed. This
is necessary because a dynamo must develop a voltage which is
greater than that of the battery before it can send a current
through the battery so as to charge it. In order to develop this
voltage, the speed of the dynamo must reach a certain value.
Should the dynamo be connected to the battery at a lower speed,
its voltage would be less than that of the battery, and instead
of the dynamo sending a current through the battery, the battery

62 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

will send a current through the dynamo, and thus lose more
energy.

In most cars, the switch which connects the dynamo to the
battery operates automatically, and does not operate until the
voltage of the dynamo is slightly greater than that of the bat-
tery. It is known as the ‘‘circuit breaker,’’ ‘‘cutout relay,’’ or
simply the ‘‘cutout.’’ When the speed of the engine decreases,
the voltage developed by the dynamo also decreases, and it
becomes necessary to disconnect the dynamo from the battery
when the dynamo voltage begins to drop below that of the

battery. This is also done by the eutout. The construction |

cutouts will be explained more fully later. Some cars have no

automatic cutout, but use a hand operated switch. Others have |

both the automatic and the hand operated switches.

not running, the battery is the only source of electricity on the

car, and therefore operates the lights. When the engine is in |
operation, and the dynamo is sending a current through the —
battery, or is ‘‘charging’’ it, the dynamo also supplies the cur- |

rent to operate the lamps.

These conditions of operation seem to be simple enough, and ©

as long as all parts work as they should, no difficulties are en-
eountered. In order to obtain satisfactory service, however, 4
number of things must be considered.

Normal Conditions of Operation, Engine Idle.

When the engine is idle and the lamps and all other electrical
equipment on the automobile are entirely disconnected from the
battery by means of their controlling switches, there should be
no current delivered by the battery. When there is no current
delivered by the battery under the above ‘conditions, it indicates
that there are no shorts or grounds connecting the positive and
negative terminals of the battery or between the battery and
the terminals of the various switches. It also indicates that the
eutout, whether it be mechanical, electro-magnetic or manual,
is open and no current is being deliverd by the battery to the
dynamo armature. When the battery shows a discharge with

CONDITIONS OF OPERATION 63

all the various controlling switches open, it may be due to
grounds, short circuits or improper operation of the cutout. An
inspection of the cutout will soon tell whether it is closed or
not, and thus eliminate this possible cause of trouble, which
reduces the difficulty to a short circuit or ground. A thorough
inspection of the circuit will be necessary in order to determine
the exact location of this kind of trouble.

It is not advisable to equip an automobile with lamps whose
candlepower exceeds that recommended by the manufacturer of
the car or equipment maker. If the current delivered by the
battery with the lamps turned on exceeds the normal value for
that particular car, it may be due to lamps 8f higher candle-
power having been substituted for the standard equipment, or
shorts and grounds. A short or ground may also be thrown onto
the battery circuit when the switches controlling special elec-
trical equipment, such as electric gear shifts, horns, trouble
lamps, ete., are closed. It is always advisable to test each of
these different circuits separately in order to make sure that
they are free from shorts and grounds and not drawing an
excessive current from the battery when in operation.

Normal Conditions of Operation, Engine Running.

When a manual type of cutout is used the battery and
dynamo are connected together through a switch whose opera-
tion is controlled by the driver of the car. These switches are
of different forms and arrangements, some being combined with
the ignition switch, some with the starting switch, while some
may operate to a certain extent independent of either the start-
ing or ignition switches. With this type of cutout the operation
of the dynamo and the adjustment of the regulator controlling
the output of the dynamo should be such that the battery will
be charging when the engine is running at very low speeds. If
this adjustment is not made, it is advisable not to run the engine
at very low speeds at any time with the cutout closed, as the
voltage of the dynamo will be lower than the voltage of the
battery and, hence, the battery will discharge back into the

64 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

dynamo. A condition of this kind may be the cause of a dis-
charged battery. The car speed at which the battery starts
to discharge may be determined by connecting an ammeter in
series with the battery and observing its indication as the speed
of the engine or car is decreased. The speedometer indication,
when the ear is running and the ammeter indicating zero current,
corresponds to what might be called the neutral speed; that is,
the voltage of the generator and battery are equal and the
battery is neither charging nor discharging. This neutral speed
should not be excessive, as a high neutral speed means a rela-
tively low dynamo voltage, and hence a corresponding decrease
in output of the dynamo.

If a mechanical cutout is used its adjustment should be such
that the circuit connecting the dynamo and battery is not closed
until the speed of the dynamo is sufficient to cause a generated
voltage in its armature winding greater than the voltage of the
battery. If this cutout closes too soon the battery will discharg
when the circuit is first closed and will continue to do so until
the speed of the dynamo is ample to cause the generated voltage
in its armature winding to be equal to or greater than the voltage
of the battery. This type of cutout may be tested by observing
the indications of an ammeter connected in series with the bat-
tery while the speed of the engine is gradually increased. If
the voltage of the dynamo is less than the voltage of the battery
when the cutout closes, the ammeter will indicate a discharge
from the battery. If the voltage of the dynamo happens to be
equal to the voltage of the battery when the circuit is: closed,
there will be no indication on the ammeter, but as the speed of
the engine is increased, the ammeter will show a gradually in-
ereasing charge. If the voltage of the dynamo exceeds the
voltage of the battery when the cutout closes, the charging
current, aS indicated on the ammeter will not gradually rise
from zero to a maximum value with increase of engine speed,
but the indication of the ammeter will suddenly jump from zero
to a certain value when the cutout closes, depending upon how
much the voltage of the dynamo exceeds the voltage of the
battery and the resistance of the entire circuit. The indicator

CONDITIONS OF OPERATION 65

then gradually increases from this value to a maximum value
with increase in engine speed.

The operation of the electromagnetic cutout should be such
that the dynamo and battery are connected together when the
voltage of the dynamo is high enough to cause a charging cur-
rent to pass through the battery when the voltage of the battery
is at its maximum value or the battery is practically fully
charged. The value of the charging current at the instant the
circuit is closed will depend upon the difference between the
voltage of the dynamo and the voltage of the battery. This
difference will be greatest when the battery is practically or
completely discharged and a minimum value when the battery
is fully charged. The operation of the cutout may be determined
as described on page 169.

The charging rate must be sufficiently high so that with all
lamps turned on and the car running at a speed of about fifteen
miles per hour, an ammeter connected at the battery will show
some charge in spite of the current being drawn for lighting
(lamp load). This does not mean, however, that the charge
rate with the lamps turned off should always be equal to the
lamp load, because of the variations in dynamo control.

The charge rate with the lamps turned off should never
exceed in amperes one-sixth of the total ampere-hour capacity
of the battery, and except at extreme high speeds should never
exceed one-eighth of this capacity.

General Operating Conditions Which Govern the Action of
a Battery.

The greatest drain on the storage battery is the operation of
the starting motor. Under no conditions should the starting
motor be used to propel the car, as there will undoubtedly be
permanent damage done to the battery. Damage due to such
treatment may not appear for some time, but it is sure to come
if the practice be followed to any extent.

The starting motor should be used as economically as possible,
and the engine started only when it is necessary to do so. Care
should be exercised in the adjustment of the carburetor and

66 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

ignition system so that it will not be necessary to erank the

engine for a considerable period before it will start. A great
many drivers have a habit of holding their foot on the starting
switch after the engine starts to fire, which results in an unneces-
sary discharge of the battery.

The adjustment of the output of some dynamos is such that |

the dynamo very seldom reaches its maximum output due to the
fact that the driver may not ordinarily operate the car at a high
enough speed, on account of traffic regulations or road con-
ditions, to enable the dynamo to develop. its maximum voltage.
In such cases the output of the dynamo should be increased
when such an adjustment is possible.

In some cases a car may be used almost entirely at night or |
at least a large part of the time that it is in use may be at night, |

and in such cases the drain on the battery may be excessive for
the amount of charge put into it. The driver should use his

starting motor as sparingly as possible, substitute lamps of lower |

candle power for the ones regularly supplied if such substitution
gives ample light for driving purposes, and be careful in the
_use of the electric horn and other electrical accessories. In no
ease should the charging rate be increased to such an extent
by adjusting the regulator that the dynamo or battery will he
damaged.

The efficiency of a storage battery is considerably less in cold |

weather than it is in warm weather, and this, coupled with the

fact that the number of hours of darkness during which the car |

is likely to be used is greater in cold weather than in warm, often
results in the battery becoming discharged, or failing to carry
the load imposed upon it during the winter, even though it oper-
ated very satisfactorily during the warm summer months. The
engine is always harder to start in cold weather than it is in
warm weather, due to the fact that the gasoline does not vaporize
as readily and the oil in all the bearings and around the pistons
is stiff, making the engines much harder to turn over. In such
eases it is often necessary to increase the output of the dynamo
during certain months of the year in order to make up for the
loss in efficiency and increase in output the battery is called upon
to supply.

CONDITIONS OF OPERATION 67

The condition of operation during the warm summer months
and long days may on the other hand result in serious damage to
the battery on account of excessive charging in proportion to
discharge. During the summer. the engine turns over more easily,
the battery is much more efficient, the gasoline vaporizes more
easily, and the lamps are not used nearly as much as they are
in the winter. This condition of over-charging can be relieved
to a certain extent by means of a touring switch, by means of
which the driver may disconnect the battery from the dynamo,
or by turning on all of the lamps with the engine idle and allowing
the battery to discharge for a few hours at certain intervals,
depending upon the speed at which the car is driven when in
use, that is, upon the amount of charge put into the battery.

CHAPTER 12.
HOW TO TAKE CARE OF THE BATTERY ON THE CAR.

The manufacturers of Starting and Lighting Equipment have
designed their generators, cutouts, and current controlling devices
so as to relieve the car owner of as much work as possible in
taking care of batteries. The generators on most cars are auto-
matically connected to the battery at the proper time, and also
disconnected from it as the engine slows down. The amount of
current which the dynamo delivers to the battery is automatically
prevented from exceeding a certain maximum value. Under the
average conditions of driving, a battery is kept in a good con-
dition. It is impossible, however, to eliminate entirely the need
of attention on the part of the car owner, and battery repairman.

The repairman, especially, should know what charging currents
the various makes and types of generators with which the auto-
mobiles are equipped should produce. It is a good plan always
to put an ammeter in series with the battery, run the engine with
the lamps turned off, and measure the charging current which
is being delivered to the battery. This should be done on every
car that is brought in for repairs. The charging current actually
received by the battery should be checked with the current the
generator is intended to deliver, and for which the generator
is adjusted before the car leaves the factory. If the generator
is not delivering the proper current, find out why, and remedy
the trouble. Otherwise the battery cannot be expected to do
its work satisfactorily, and be fully charged.

The storage battery requires but little attention, and this is
the very reason why many batteries are neglected. Motorists
often have the impression that because their work in caring for
a battery is quite simple, no harm will result if they give the
battery no attention whatever. If the battery fails to turn over
the engine when the starting switch is closed, then instruction

HOW TO TAKE CARE OF BATTERY ON CAR 69

books are studied. Thereafter the motorists pay more attention
to the battery. The rules to be observed in caring for a battery
on a car are given in the remainder of this chapter. Some of them
apply to car owners tlone, while the others are intended for
garagemen.

Preparing Battery for Use.

1. Unpacking. If the battery arrived packed, unpack it care-
fully, being careful to keep it right side up. Brush off all dirt,
excelsior, etc.

2. Inspect for Leakage. Remove the vent plugs and see that
the electrolyte covers the plates. Rough handling in shipping

Fig. 17. The Battery Installed

may have cracked one of the jars. If the electrolyte does not
cover the plates, or if there is electrolyte around the jars or at
the joints in the box, one or more of the jars are probably broken.
In this case, take the matter up with the transportation company,
or party from whom the battery was received.

3. Installation of the Storage Battery. A special battery com-
partment is provided on the automobile in the majority of cases
which provides both an electrical and mechanical protection. The

70 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

battery must be firmly fastened in a definite position in the battery
box or compartment, so as to prevent any movement due to the
vibration of the car. Special hooks are usually provided for hold-
ing the battery in place by fastening their upper ends in openings
or handles on the wooden containing case, their lower ends passing
through the bottom of the battery compartment. See Figure 17.
A thumb-nut or other adjustment is provided on these hooks by
means of which they may be drawn up. It is advisable to place
the battery on several small wooden cleats laid on the bottom of

Fig. 18, Battery Short Circuited by a Pair of Pliers

the battery compartment unless such cleats are provided, and
then place the battery in such a position in the compartment that
there will be an air space on all sides as well as top and bottom.
This arrangement gives the maximum mechanical and electrical
protection as well as the best ventilation. It is not advisable to
use any packing of any kind about the battery, but depend en-
tirely upon the hooks to hold it firmly in place. Lack of care in
properly securing the battery will undoubtedly result in broken
battery jars, broken electrical connections or cracked sealing
compound, any one of which may result in serious damage to the

HOW TO TAKE CARE OF BATTERY ON CAR 71

battery and at the same time make the electrical system inop-
erative. Under no conditions use the battery compartment in
storing tools, oil cans, pieces of wire, etc., as they are likely to
jolt around and short cricuit one or more of the cells.

The leads coming into the battery compartment should be long
enough so that the terminals on their ends may be easily attached
to the terminals of the battery and still have ample slack in the
leads so as to prevent the terminals or connections being broken
should the battery happen to move. Care should be exercised
in making the electrical connections to the battery to see that the
surfaces coming into contact are thoroughly cleaned and the area
of the contact is as large as possible, which means a minimum
resistance. Under no condition connect a copper wire directly
to the terminal of a storage battery, as the acid fumes will attack
the eopper and start corrosion, which will eventually result in the
end of the wire being eaten off entirely and at the same time a
badly corroded battery terminal.. If such connections are neces-
sary in order to take care of additional circuits and equipment
other than the regular equipment, connection may be made to the
leads from the battery some distance from the battery or pref-
erably at a terminal block when one is provided.

There is room for great improvement in the design of battery
terminals and cable connections. The best method has the cables
burned directly to the battery posts. This eliminates the possi-
bility of corrosion at the connection between the cable and the
post. The burned-on cables should be fastened to a terminal block
placed on the side of the box. The cables and wires leading to
the starting motor and other parts of the car should be fastened
to these terminal blocks also. If all batteries were connected in
this fashion, much of time spent in the cleaning of terminals, and
charging made necessary by loose or corroded connections would
be saved.

4, Connection of Battery. The cables attached to the battery
lead to the starting motor, dynamo, lighting system, and very
frequently the ignition system also. As far as the starting, light-
ing, and ignition systems are concerned, it makes no difference
which cable is connected to the positive (marked ‘‘P,’’ ‘‘Pos,’’ or
‘19. battery terminal post and which cable is attached to the

72 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

negative (marked ‘‘N,’’ ‘‘Neg,’’ or ‘‘—’’) battery terminal post.
With some dynamos this is also true. With most dynamos, how-
ever, the cable which is attached to the positive battery terminal
must lead to the positive dynamo terminal, and the cable which
is attached to the negative battery terminal must !ead to the
negative dynamo terminal. On many cars, one battery terminal
is connected to the iron car frame. In this case the corresponding
terminal on the dynamo must also be connected to the iron car
frame. The other battery terminal is connected to the remaining
dynamo terminal. If it is not known which cable leads to the posi-
tive and which to the negative dynamo terminal, the following
test may be made:

Fill a tumbler with electrolyte or
salt water. Fasten a wire to each
cable, insert the wires in the tumbler,

Now start the engine, and run it at
a speed corresponding to a car speed
of not less than 20 miles per hour.

one of the wires, and.the cable to

the negative dynamo terminal, and
should be connected to the negative
battery terminal. See Figure 19.

B. Freshening Charge. Battery should be given a charge just
before installing on car, or immediately after, at the charging
rate stamped on the nameplate. Directions for charging will be
given later.

6. Keep Battery and Interior of Battery Box Wiped Clean
and Dry. For this purpose use a rag dipped in ammonia or baking
soda. Do not bring an open flame near the battery vent holes.
The reason for this is that bubbles of hydrogen and oxygen
escape from the electrolyte, and the mixture is very explosive.

In ease the electrolyte or water has been spilled on top of the
battery, the surface should be rubbed off with a cloth that has
been moistened with ammonia water and should then be wiped
with a dry cloth.

keeping them at least one inch apart. |

which this wire is attached leads to |

Fine bubbles of gas will collect at |

se"

HOW TO TAKE CARE OF BATTERY ON CAR 73

The battery terminals and other connections must be clean and
free from corrosion. Should erystals or cakes of blue-green copper
sulphate be found the parts should be washed with a solution
of baking soda in hot water and should then be covered with
vaseline to prevent further action by the acid.

7. Inspect the Battery Twice a Month in Winter, and Once a
Week in Summer, to Make Sure That the Electrolyte Covers the
Plates. To do this, remove the filling plugs and look down through
the opening, as shown in Figure 20. If a light is necessary for
this purpose, use an electric lamp. Never use an open flame, such
as @& match or candle. An
explosion may result from
the gases of the battery. Dur-
ing the normal course of op-
eration of the battery, water
from the electrolyte will
evaporate. The acid never
evaporates. The surface of
the electrolyte should be not
less than one half inch above
the tops of the plates. A con-
venient method of measuring
the height of the electrolyte
is shown in Figure 21. Insert
one end of a short piece of
a glass tube, having an open-
ing not less than one-eighth
inch diameter, through the
filling hole, and allow it to "#,,20;,Fraplgine the jae of Bat
rest on the upper edge of the See the Height of Solution
plates. Then place your finger over the upper end, and withdraw
the tube. A column of liquid will remain in the lower end of the
tube as shown in the figure, and the height of this column is the
same as the height of the electrolyte above the top of the plates in
the cell. If this is less than one-half inch, add enough distilled
water to bring the electrolyte up to the proper level. Never use
well water, spring water, water from a stream, or ordinary faucet
water. These contain impurities which will damage the battery if

xe THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

used. If no distilled water is available, clean rain water, if collected
in the country, or melted artificial ice may be used. Rain water in

Fig. 22

the city is seldom pure enough.
City atmospheres usually contain
ammonia, and other gases which the
rain absorbs in falling, making it
unfit for use. In winter time, if
the air temperature is below freez-
ing (32°F), start the engine before
adding water, and keep it running
for about one hour after the battery
begins to ‘‘gas.’’? A good time to
add the water is just before starting
on a trip, as the engine will then
usually be run long enough to

charge the battery, and cause the water to mix thoroughly with
the electrolyte. Otherwise, the water, being lighter than the electro-

‘UNSCREW
‘THIs CAP

FILL UP TO
THIS POINT:

Fig, 22. Cross Section of Battery, Showing Correct Level of Water

HOW TO TAKE CARE OF BATTERY ON CAR) 75

Ff. 23. Pour Some of the Dis- Fig. 24. Release the Pressure on
tilled Water Into a Glass. the Bulb, Thus Drawing Water
Squeeze the Air Out of the Up Into the Hydrometer
Bulb of the Hydrometer. Put .

Rubber Tip in the Glass

Fig. 25. Insert the Tube in Vent Hole in Center of Battery, and Squeeze the
‘drometer Bulb Until the Cell Is Filled to the Proper Level

6 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

Fig. 2B. Release the Pressure on the Bulb and Hold Syringé in Horizontal, Position
Prevent Water from Dripping on Battery. Return Excess Water to Glass

Fig. 27. Replace the Screw Plugs and Wipe Dirt and Moisture from Top of Battery

HOW TO TAKE CARE OF BATTERY ON CAR 77

Fig. 28. Showing Battery with Electrolyte too High

Fig. 29. Showing Battery with Electrolyte too Low

78 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

lyte, will remain at the top and freeze. Be sure to wipe all water
from the battery top after filling. It is essential that distilled
water be used for this purpose, and it must be handled carefully
so as to keep impurities of any kind out of the water. Never
use a metal can for handling water or electrolyte for a
battery, but always use a glass or porcelain vessel. The
water should be stored in glass bottles, and poured into a
porcelain or glass pitcher when it is to be used. A con-
venient method of adding the water to the battery is to draw
some up in a hydrometer syringe and add the necessary amount
to the cell by inserting the rubber tube which is at the lower
end into the vent hole and then squeezing the bulb until the
required amount has been put into the cell. This is shown pic-
torially in Figures 22 to 29 inclusive.

The acid in the electrolyte does not evaporate, and it is very
seldom necessary to add acid. Acid is lost when a cell gasses;
electrolyte may be spilled; a cracked jar will allow electrolyte
to leak out; if too much water is added, the expansion of the
electrolyte when the battery is charging may cause it to run over
and be lost, or the jolting of the car may cause some of it to be
spilled; if a battery is allowed
to become badly sulphated,
some of the sulphate is never
reduced, or drops to the bottom
of the cell, and the acid lost in
the formation of the sulphate is
not regained. Thus it is seldom
necessary to add acid. If acid
or electrolyte is added instead
of water, when no acid is need-
ed, the electrolyte will become
too strong, and sulphate plates
will be the result. If a battery
under average driving condi-
tions never becomes fully
charged, it should be removed
from the ear and charged from 8,3 0., ,thls Shows How Eiaies snd

an outside source as explained ing Acid Solution Instead of Water

HOW TO TAKE CARE OF BATTERY ON CAR 79

later. If, after a long continued charge, the battery is still not fully —
charged, some of the electrolyte should be removed, fresh electro-
lyte having a specific gravity of 1.400 should be added instead of
water. This should preferably be done by an experienced battery
man.

Care must be used not to fill the battery cells too far above the
plates. By looking down through the opening left when the filler
plug is removed a second opening may usually be seen, between
a half inch and one inch below the top. The level of the liquid
should be at this lower hole but should not be brought above it.
See Figure 28.

If the battery is filled above this point, the electrolyte will run
over the top of the tube, cause a short circuit between the battery
terminals, and run down the sides of the box. It may get into
the metal battery box and eat out the bottom, as well as rot the
wooden battery case.

8. The specific gravity of the electrolyte orm,
should be measured every two weeks anda ft'(/(..\'\."
permanent record of the readings made for
future reference. )

As already explained, the specific gravity
of the electrolyte is the ratio of its weight
to the weight of an equal volume of water.
Acid is heavier than water, and hence the
heavier the electrolyte, the more acid it con-
tains, and the more nearly it is fully
charged. In automobile batteries, a specific
gravity of 1.3800-1.250 indicates a fully
charged battery. Other readings are as
follows:

1.300-1.250—Fully charged.

Se 1,250-1.200—More than half charged.
Fig. 31 1.200-1.150—Less than half charged.
1.150 and less—Completely discharged.

For determining the specific gravity, a hydrometer is used. This
consists of a small sealed glass tube with an air bulb and a quan-
tity of shot at one end, and a graduated scale on the upper end.
This scale is marked from 1.100 to 1.300, with various intermediate

80 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

markings as shown in Figure 31. If this hydrometer is placed in
a liquid, it will sink to a certain depth. In so doing, it will displace
a certain volume of the electrolyte, and when it comes to rest, the
volume displaced will just be equal to the weight of the hydrometer.
It will therefore sink farther in a light liquid than in a heavy one,
since it will require a greater volume of the light liquid to equal
the weight of the hydrometer. The top mark on the hydrometer
scale is therefore 1.100 and the bottom one 1.300.

For convenience in automobile work, the hydrometer is enclosed
in a large glass tube having a short length of rubber tubing
at its lower end, and a large rubber bulb at the upper end.
The combination is called a hydrometer-syringe, or simply hy-

drometer. See Figure 32. In
measuring the specific gravity
of the electrolyte, the filler plug
is removed, the bulb is squeezed
{so as to expel the air from it,
and the rubber tubing inserted
in the hole from which the plug
was removed. The pressure on
the bulb is now released, and
electrolyte is drawn up into the
glass tube. The rubber tubing
on the hydrometer should not
be withdrawn from the cell.
When a sufficient amount has
entered the tube, the hydrom-
eter will float. In taking a
reading, there must be no pres-
sure on the bulb, and the hy-
drometer should be floating

Fig. 33. Taking a Specific Gravity freely and not touching the

Reading walls of the tube. The tube
must be held in a vertical position, and the stem of the hydrometer
must also be vertical. The reading will be the number on the
stem at the surface of the electrolyte in the tube. Thus if the
hydrometer sinks in the electrolyte, until the electrolyte comes
up to the 1.150 mark on the stem, the specific gravity is 1.150.

HOW TO TAKE CARE OF BATTERY ON CAR. 81

Having taken a reading, the bulb is squeezed so as to return
the electrolyte to the cell.

Care should be taken not to spill the electrolyte from the hy-
Crometer syringe when testing the gravity. Such moisture on top
of the cells tends to cause a short circuit between the terminals
and to discharge the battery.

In making tests with the hydrometer the electrolyte should
always be returned to the same cell from which it was drawn.
Failure to do this will finally result in an increased proportion of
acid in one cell and a deficiency of acid in others.

The specific gravity of all cells of a battery should rise and fall
together, as the cells are usually connected in Series so that the
Same current passes through each cell both on charge and dis-
charge. Some batteries are divided into two or more sections
which are connected in parallel while the engine is running, and
in such cases the cables leading to the different sections should
all be of exactly the same length, and the contacts in the switch
which connect these sections in parallel should all be clean and
tight, If cables of unequal length are used, or if some of the
switch contacts are loose and dirty, the sections will not receive
equal charging currents, because the resistances of the charging
circuits will not be equal. The section having the greatest
resistance in its circuit will receive the least amount of charge,
and will show lower specific gravity readings than for other sec-
tions. In a multiple section battery, there is therefore a tendency
for the various sections to receive unequal charges, and for one
or more sections to run down continually. An ammeter should be
attached with the engine running and the battery charging, first
to one section and then to each of the others in turn. The am-
meter should be inserted and removed from the circuit while the
engine remains running and all conditions must be exactly the
same, Otherwise the comparative results will not give reliable
indications. It would be better still to use two ammeters at the
same time, one on each section of the battery. In case the am-
perage of charge should differ by more than 10% between any two
sections, the section receiving the low charge rate should be
examined for proper height of electrolyte, for the condition of its

82 | THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

terminals and its connections at the starting switch as described.
Should a section have suffered considerably from such lack of
charge its voltage will probably have been lowered. With all
connections made tight and clean and with the liquid at the
proper height in each cell this section may automatically receive a |
higher charge until it is brought back to normal. This high |
charge results from the comparatively low voltage of the section
affected.

Fig. 34 Fig. 35
Hydrometer Reading, 1.300 ‘Hydrometer Reading, 1.150

{
In case the car is equipped with such a battery, each section
must carry its proper fraction of the load and with lamps turned
on or other electrical devices in operation the flow from the sev-
eral sections must be the same for each one. An examination
should be made to sce that no additional lamps, such as trouble \
finders or body lamps, have been attached on one side of the {
battery, also that the horn and other accessories are so connected
that they draw from all sections at once.

HOW TO TAKE CARE OF BATTERY ON CAB 83

Some starting systems now being used have not been designed
carefully in this respect, one section of the battery having longer
cables attached to it than the others. In such systems it is impos-
sible for these sections to receive as much charging current as
others, even though all connections and switches are in good con-
dition. In other systems, all the cells of the battery are in series,
and therefore must receive the same charging current, but have
lighting wires attached to it at intermediate points, thus dividing
the battery into sections for the lighting circuits. If the currents
_taken by these circuits are not equal, the battery section supplying
the heavier current will run down faster than others. Fortunately,
multiple section batteries are not being used to any great extent
at present, and troubles due to this cause are disappearing.

If one cell of a battery shows a specific gravity which is de-
eidedly lower than that of the other cells in series with it, and
if this difference gradually increases, the cell showing the lower
gravity has internal trouble. This probably consists of a short
circuit. If the electrolyte in this cell falls faster. than that of the
other cells, a leaky jar is indicated. The various cells should have
specifie gravities within twenty-five points of each other, such as
1.250 and 1.275.

If the entire battery shows a specific gravity below 1.200, it is
not receiving enough charge to replace the energy used in starting
the engine and supplying current to the lights, or else there is
trouble in the battery. The troubles which cause low gravity
are given on pages 172 to 174. It is often difficult to determine
what charging current should be delivered by the generator.
Some generators operate at a constant voltage slightly higher
than that of the fully charged battery, and the charging current
will change, being higher for a discharged battery than for one
that is almost or fully charged. Other generators deliver a con-
stant current which is the same regardless of the battery’s con-
dition. To give data on this subject is beyond the scope of this
book. Complete information is given in the Ambu Charts pub-
lished by the American Bureau of Engineering, Ine.

In the constant voltage type of generator, the charging current
automatically adjusts itself to the condition of the battery. In
the constant current type, the exact value of current for which

84 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

the generator is designed and adjusted is determined by the manu-
facturer, and is intended to keep a battery charged under the
average driving conditions. Individual cases often require that
another current value be used. In this case, the output of the
generator must be changed. With most generators, a current
regulating device is used which may be adjusted so as to give
a fairly wide range of current, the exact value chosen being the
result of a study of driving conditions and of several trials. The
charging current should never be made so large that the tem-
perature of the electrolyte in the battery is above 90° Fahrenheit.
A dairy thermometer is very useful in determining the tempera-
ture. See Figure 36. The thermometer bulb is immersed in the
electrolyte above the plates through the filler hole in the tops of
the cells. Complete information on generators is given in the
Ambu Charts referred to above.

Specific gravity readings should never be taken soon after dis-
tilled water has been added to the battery. The water and elec-
trolyte do not mix immediately, and such readings will give mis-
leading results. The battery should be charged several hours
before the readings are taken. It is also a good plan to take a
specific gravity reading before adding any water, since accurate
results can also be obtained in this way.

If the gravity, before filling, was below 1.150, the battery should
be removed from the car and fully charged from an outside
source. If the gravity was 1.150 or above the engine should be
run at a speed that corresponds to 15 to 20 miles per hour, with-
out any lamps turned on, for‘a total of at least twelve hours. This
treatment should be continued until the specific gravity of the
battery does not show any further rise for two hours. If the
gravity was 1.100 or below the charging must be continued for a
total of sixty hours or more. If the battery is recharged on the
ear, it will be best to substitute lamp bulbs of lower candle power
than those regularly used until the gravity comes up to 1.275.

A completely discharged battery will ordinarily take about
twenty hours’ charging to bring it up, but if the battery has stood
for a considerable length of time in a discharged condition or has
been reversed it may take several days to bring the gravity up to
normal,

HOW TO TAKE CARE OF BATTERY ON CAR 85

The temperature of the electrolyte affects the specific gravity,
since heat causes the electrolyte to expand. If we take any bat-
tery or cell and heat it, the electrolyte will expand and its specific
gravity will decrease, although its actual strength will be the
same, because the actual amount of acid is the same. The change
in specific gravity amounts to one point, approximately,
for each degree Fahrenheit change. If the electrolyte
has a gravity of 1.250 at 70°F, and the temperature is
raised to 73°F, the specific gravity of the battery will be
1.249. If the temperature is decreased to 67°F, the spe-
cific gravity will be 1.251. Since the change of tempera-
ture does not change the actual strength of the electro-
lyte, the gravity readings as obtained with the hydrom-
eter syringe should be corrected one point for every three
degrees change in temperature. Thus 70°F is considered
the normal temperature, and one point is added to the
electrolyte reading for every three degrees above 70°F.
Similarly, one point is subtracted for every three de-
grees below 70°F. For convenience of the hydrometer
user, a special thermometer has been developed by bat-
tery makers. This is shown in Figure 36. It has a
special scale mounted beside the regular scale. This
scale shows the corrections which must be made when
the temperature is not 70°F. Opposite the 70 point on
the thermometer is a ‘‘0’’ point on the special scale.
This indicates that no correction is to be made. Op-
posite the 67° point on the regular scale is a —1, indi-
eating that 1 must be subtracted from the hydrometer
reading to find what the specific gravity would be if
the temperature were 70°F.. Opposite the 73° point on
the regular scale is a -++1, indicating that 1 point must
be added to reading on the hydrometer, in order to
reduce the reading of specific gravity to a temperature
of 70°F. Fig. 36

. Special

9. Operating Temperatures. Storage batteries are Thermon-
Strongly affected by changes in temperature. Both ex- eter
tremely high, and very low temperatures are to be avoided. At low
temperatures the electrolyte grows denser, the porosity of plates

ST S.e FLELS. EL

| ee

UE Uo TES Oe EO

pj] jo] Be] S| Bl

86 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

and separators decreases, circulation and diffusion of electrolytes
are made difficult, chemical actions between plates and acid take
place very slowly, and the whole battery becomes sluggish, and acts
as if-it were numbed with cold. The voltage and capacity of the
battery are lowered. .

As the battery temperature increases, the density of the electro-
lyte decreases, the plates and separators become more porous, the
internal resistance decreases, circulation and diffusion of electro-
lyte take place much more quickly, the chemical actions between
plates and electrolyte proceed more rapidly, and the battery voltage
and capacity increase. A battery therefore works better at high
temperatures.

Excessive temperatures, say over 100°F, are, however, more
harmful than low temperatures. Evaporation of the electrolyte
takes place very rapidly, the separators are attacked by the hot
acid and are ruined, the active materials and plates expand to
such an extent that the active materials break away from the grids
and the grids warp and buckle. The active materials themselves
are burned and made practically useless. The hot acid also attacks
the grids and the sponge lead and forms dense layers of sulphate.
Such temperatures are therefore extremely dangerous.

A. battery that persistently runs hot, requiring frequent addi-
tion of water is either receiving too much charging current, or
has internal trouble. The remedy for excessive charge is to de-
crease the output of the generator, or to burn the lamps during
the day time. Motorists who make long touring trips in which
considerable day driving is done, with little use of the starter,
experience the most trouble from high temperature. The remedy
is either to install a switch with which the generator may be dis-
connected from the battery, or to use the lamps as mentioned
above.

Internal short-circuits cause excessive temperature rise, both
on charge and discharge. Such short circuits usually result from
buckled plates which break through the separators, or from an
excessive amount of sediment. This sediment consists of active
material or lead sulphate which has dropped from the positive
plate and fallen to the bottom of the battery jar. All battery
jars are provided with ridges which keep the plates raised an inch

HOW TO TAKE CARE OF BATTERY ON.CAR 87

or more from the bottom of the Jar, and which form pockets into
which the materials drop. See Figure 22. If these pockets be-
come filled, and the sediment reaches the bottom of the plates,
internal short circuits result which cause the battery to run down
and cause excessive temperatures.

If the electrolyte is allowed to fall below the tops of the plates,
the parts of the plates above the acid become dry, and when the
battery is charged grow hot. The parts still covered by the acid
also become hot because all the charging current is carried by
these parts, and the plate surface is less than before. The elec-
trolyte will also become hot and boil away. A battery which is
thus ‘‘charged while dry’’ deteriorates rapidly, its life being very
short. :

Sulphated plates will also grow hot, even with a normal charg-
ing current, because only those parts of the active material which
are not covered by lead sulphate carry the current, and therefore
heat up. This results in buckling and fracture of plates.

If a battery is placed in a hot place on the ear, this heat in
addition to that caused by charging will soften the plates and
jars, and shorten their life considerably.

In the winter, it is especially important not to allow the battery
to become discharged, as there is danger of the electrolyte freez-
ing. A fully charged battery will not freeze except at an extremely
low temperature. The water expands as it freezes, loosening the
active materials, and cracking the grids. As soon as a charging
current thaws the battery, active material is loosened, and drops
to the bottom of the jars, with the result that the whole battery
may disintegrate. Jars may also be cracked by the expansion of
the water when a battery freezes.

To avoid freezing, a battery should therefore be kept charged.
The temperatures at which electrolyte of various specific gravities
freezes are as follows:

Specific Gravity Freezing Pt. Specific Gravity Freezing Pt.
1.020 30°F. 1.170 0°F.
1.060 26°F, 1.220 -28°F.
1.100 21°F. 1.260 -65°R,

1.140 12°F. 1.290 -98°R,

88 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

No anti-freeze solution of any kind is required for use in the
battery. The addition of alcohol or anything else except pure
water to the cells will result in internal damage.

10. Care of Storage Battery When Not in Service. A storage
battery may be out of service for a considerable period at certain
times of the year, for example, when the automobile is put away
during the winter months, and during this time it should not be
allowed to stand without attention. When the battery is to be out
of service for only three or four weeks, it should be kept well
filled with distilled water and given as complete a charge as possi-
ble the last few days the car is in service by using the lamps and
starting motor very sparingly. The specific gravity of the elec-
trolyte should be tested in each cell, and it should be somewhere
between 1.270 and 1.300. All connections to the battery should
be removed as any slight discharge current will in time completely
discharge it, and the possibilities of such an occurrence are to
be avoided. If the battery is to be put out of service for several
months, it should be given a complete charge by operating the
dynamo on the car or by connecting it to an outside charging
eircuit. During the out-of-service period, water should be added
to the cells every six or eight weeks and the battery given what is
called a refreshing charge; that is, the engine should be run until
the.cells have been gassing for perhaps one hour, and the battery
may then be allowed to stand for another similar period with-
out further attention. Water should be added and the battery
fully charged before it is put back into service. It may be neces-
sary to charge the battery for 40 or 50 hours at one-half the
normal raté before it will be fully charged if it has stood for five
or six months without being charged. It is desirable to have the
temperature of the room where the battery is stored fairly eon-
stant and as near 70 degrees Fahrenheit as possible.

| CHAPTER 13.
MANUFACTURE OF STORAGE BATTERIES.

To supply the great number of batteries needed for gasoline
automobiles, many large companies have been formed and huge
factories erected. Each company has its special and secret pro-
cesses which it will not reveal to the public. Only a few com-
panies supply batteries in any considerable quantities, the great
majority of cars being supplied with batteries made by not more
than five or six manufacturers. This greatly reduces the number
of possible different designs in general use today.

The design and dimensions of batteries vary considerably, but
the general constructions are similar. The special processes of
the manufacturers are of no special interest to the motoring pub-
lic, and only a general description will be given here. .

A starting and lighting battery consists of the following prin-
cipal parts:

1. Plates. ; 4. Jars.
2. Separators. 5. Top connectors and. covers.
3. Electrolyte. 6. Case.

Plates. Of the two general types of battery plates, Faure and
Plante, the Faure or pasted plate type is used on the great ma-
jority of automobiles. In the manufacture of the Faure or
pasted plates there are several steps which we shall describe
in the order they are carried out.

Moulding the Grid. The grid is a casting made of lead and
antimony, about 6 to 10% of antimony being used. This gives
a grid which is harder and stronger than pure lead, less liable
to deformation, and one which is not affected by the battery acid
to any appreciable extent. On the other hand, the grid is more
brittle, and more liable to be fractured or broken if the active
materials should expand abnormally.

The lead and antimony are melted together, thoroughly mixed,

90 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

and then poured into the molds. The Willard Co. makes two plates
in one casting. The mold resembles a waffle-iron, the plates being
molded bottom to bottom. The casting therefore has a lug at each
end, and is thus easily handled, the lugs being used to hold the cast-
ing in racks during the various processes through which it passes.
The casting is not split into two plates until the paste has been

Fig. 37. A Pair of Grids Trimmed and Ready to be Pasted. The Lugs at the Top Are
for Burning in to the Connector Straps to Make a Group

applied, and the plates formed and dried. The two parts of the
casting are, of course, made into plates of the same polarity.
After cooling, the grids are removed from the molds, and cleaned.
The rough edges are trimmed off, and the parts polished. The
grid is now ready for pasting.

Figure 37 shows a Willard grid ready for pasting. It will be
noticed that a heavy lug is at the upper left hand corner. This

Pos, Connecting Strap Neg. Connecting Strap
Fig. 38

is later burned into a cross bar, together with other plates, and
from this cross bar extends the outer battery terminal to which a
battery cable or connecting link is attached. (See figure 38.)
Seven vertical stiffening ribs, together with the four heavy ribs
at the tops and side, serve to make the plate strong and rigid.
It will be noticed that the top and left hand side piece taper away

MANUFACTURE OF STORAGE BATTERIES 91

from the lug. This gives strength and also provides a greater
current carrying area near the lug. The amount of current carried
by these ribs is greatest near the lug, and grows less toward the
right hand end and bottom of the grid.

In the Willard Battery the ribs all run at right angles to one
another. This is true of most of the different'makes. In the
Philadelphia Diamond grid, these ribs are arranged at smaller
angles to each other, so as to form diamond shaped openings.
The purpose of the ribs in any grid is to form a rigid supporting
frame for the paste, and to distribute the current uniformly to
all parts of the paste. The pastes used are weak mechanically,
and could not be made into plates without the supporting grids,
especially in automobile service, where batteries are often sub-
jected to severe jolting.

Fig. 39. A Pair of Formed Plates Ready to be Burned to the Connecting Straps

Pastes. There are many formulas for the active materials.
For the positive plates, litharge (PbO), or red lead, (Pb,O,), or
a combination of the two is mixed with dilute sulphuric acid. A
paste is made which is just thick enough to make it easy to
work it into the spaces between the ribs of the grid. For the
negative plates litharge (PbO) is generally made into a paste
with dilute sulphuric acid.

Various methods and machines are used for making the pastes.
Some manufacturers use mixers which resemble the ordinary
cement mixer and which are power driven. The lead com-
pounds and acid are dumped into the mixers and the latter are
then set in motion. Iland rotated drums are also used.

Applying the pastes.. This may be done with the bare hands,
or with wooden paddles, or with machines, as in the USL Machine

92 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

Pasted Plate. In hand pasting the pastes are worked first into
one side of the grid, and then into the other. In machine pasted
plates, both sides are filled with the pastes simultaneously. Fig-
ure 40 shows a pasting room in a Willard factory. The pastes
begin to harden from the time they are mixed, and the pasting
is done quickly so as to apply the pastes before they are too
stiff to be worked into spaces of the grids.

The freshly pasted plates are now allowed to dry in the air,
are put into drying ovens and dried by a hot air blast, or are

Fig. 40. Pasting Room in the Willard Storage Battery Co. Factory

immersed in dilute sulphuric acid for several days. In either
ease, the pastes set to a hard mass, this being due to the forma-
tion of lead sulphate, which hardens, and cements the particles
of the paste. This sulphate becomes crystallized into a firm bind-
ing mass without which the pastes would soon fall from the grids.
The plates become so hard that they may be pounded on the
floor without losing any paste. Both positive and negative plates
are allowed to sulphate in this way.

Forming. After the sulphation, or cementing process is com-
pleted, the plates are brushed clean, and sent to the forming

MANUFACTURE OF STORAGE BATTERIES 93

room. This is usually a large room containing a number of acid
filled tanks, into which the plates are placed. Figure 41 shows
a forming room in the Willard factory. Negative and posi:
tive plates are arranged very much as they appear in the finished
battery. All positives are connected together, as are also the
negatives. Current is then passed through the plates for from
three to six days so as to change the pastes into sponge lead and
lead peroxide; the process being called ‘‘forming”’ the plates.
The forming current used varies with the size, design, and make,

Fig- 41. Forming Room in the Willard Storage Battery Co, Factory

the Willard Co. using a current of one-half ampere per plate.
The ‘pastes as applied to the grids could not enter into chemical
actions with the electrolyte so as to provide electricity for operat-
ing a starting motor, or lamps. They must be changed consider-
ably before becoming ‘‘active’’ material. The changes they
undergo must be produced mainly by an electric current.

At the beginning of the ‘‘forming”’ process, the positive plate
contains about 55% of litharge (PbO), 25% of lead peroxide,
(PbO,) and 20% of lead sulphate (PbSO,). The lead oxide
begins to change to lead peroxide as soon as the forming current
is started. The amount of lead sulphate begins to increase, and

24 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY |

continues to do so for several hours. This is probably caused by
the plate becoming more porous, so that the acid is able to reach
more oxide, which it changes to sulphate. The sulphate soon
changes to lead peroxide, however, and when the forming is
completed, the positive plates contain nine per cent of litharge
(PbO), 88% of lead peroxide (PbO,), and 3% of lead sulphate
(PbSO,). This 3% of lead sulphate probably is never changed
into lead peroxide if a battery is used normally, but it remains
and acts as a cement to bind the particles of lead peroxide
together.

The negative plate cements until it contains 30% of lead sul- |

phate. As soon as the forming current is passed through the neg-
atives, lead begins to form immediately, but the amount of sulphate
also increases. The amount of sulphate reaches a maximum and
turns into spongy lead quite rapidly. The fully formed plate
contains but a very small amount of lead sulphate, being com-
posed of 98% of metallic lead and 2% of litharge. Very little
lead sulphate is left, but the spongy lead is itself a tough, coher-
ent substance, which sticks together all over the plate surface.
When the forming current is turned off, the positive grids have
a chocolate brown color, and negative plates have a slate gray
color.

Manufacturers have more complicated methods and formulas
in mixing pastes for the plates. Some add organic acids, salts
or sugar. These are mixed with the pastes, and are used either
to increase the hardness of the paste, or to increase its porosity.
Magnesium sulphate is also used for this purpose. These ‘‘form-
ing’’ agents generally disappear after the battery has been used
for some time.

The sulphate which remains in the positive plate at the sur-
face is soon changed to lead peroxide when the battery has been
charged several times. The lead peroxide then drops to the
bottom of the jars, and the plates are said to be ‘‘shedding.”’

In mixing the paste for the negative plates, magnesium sul-
phate, or graphite are added to make the plate more porous.
The value of these porosity agents is questionable, and they may,
in fact, have a harmful effect upon the plate.

As the forming progresses, the plates are tested from time

MANUFACTURE OF STORAGE BATTERIES 95

to time with a voltmeter, and the cadmium test is also made.
(See Page 266.) In this way, the conditions of positive and nega-
tive plates are determined separately.

‘When the forming process is complete, the positive plates are
rinsed in warm water and allowed to dry in the air. The nega-
tive plates are also dried in the air. This results in the spongy
lead on the negative plates changing back to litharge (PbO).
The plates are now ready to be assembled into cells. ,

Separators.

In batteries used both for starting and for lighting, separa-
tors made of specially treated wood are largely used. Lately,
however, the Willard Company has adopted an insulator made of

Fig. 42. A Pile of Prepared Wooden Separators Ready to be Put Between the Pos-

itive and Negative Plates to Form the Complete Element
a rubber fabric pierced by thousands of cotton threads, each
thread being as long as the separator is thick. The electrolyte is
carried through these threads from one side of the separator to
the other by capillary action, the great number of these threads
insuring the rapid diffusion of electrolyte which is necessary
in batteries which are subjected to the heavy discharge current
required in starting.

In batteries used for lighting or ignition, sheets of rubber
in which numerous holes have been drilled are also used, these
holes permitting diffusion to take place rapidly enough to per-
form the required service satisfactorily, since the currents in-
volved are much smaller than in starting motor serivee.

For the wooden separators, porous wood, such as basswood,

96 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

cypress, or cedar are used. Redwood has been used to some
extent. The wood is cut into strips of the correct thickness.
These strips are passed through a grooving machine which cuts
the grooves in one side, leaving the other side smooth. The strips
are next sawed to the correct size, and are then put in a warm
alkaline solution to neutralize any organic acid, such as acetic
acid, which the wood naturally contains. Such acids would cause
unsatisfactory battery action and damage to the battery. _ The
alkali is finally washed out, and the separators given a final
trimming. They are now ready for assembling.

Electrolyte.

Little need be said here about the electrolyte, since a. full
description is given elsewhere. Acid is received by the battery
manufacturer in concentrated form. Its specific gravity is then
1.835. The acid commonly used is made by the ‘‘contact’’ pro-
cess, in which sulphur dioxide is oxidized to sulphur trioxide,
and then, with the addition of water, changed to sulphuric acid. |
The concentrated acid is diluted with distilled water to a_
specific gravity of 1.300.

Jars.

The jars are made of vulcanized rubber. The complete jars
are inspected carefully for flaws which might result in a leaky,
short lived battery. Across the bottom gums
of the jar are several stiff ribs which ex-
tend up into the jar so as to provide a
substantial support for the plates, and
at the same time forming several pockets
below the plates in which the sediment re-
sulting from shedding of active material
from the positive plates accumulates.

Top Connectors and Covers.

The connectors with which the cells are
connected to each other are castings of
lead, which, in batteries used for starting
motors are made extra heavy so as to carry the heavy starting
current without overheating. The covers are made of vulean-

Fig, 48

MANUFACTURE OF STORAGE BATTERIES 97

ized rubber, and various manufacturers have developed special
designs, their aims being to so construct the covers as to
facilitate the escape of gases which result from charging, to
provide space for the expansion of the electrolyte, to simplify
filling with distilled water, to make leak-proof joints at the
terminals and jars, and to simplify the work of making re-
pairs.

Fig. 44. Between Cell Link Fig. 45. Term. Link in Perspective

Several designs «re shown below. Figure 22, page 74, shows
a Willard construction. The rubber cover is shown in gray
at the top of the cell. It is made in one piece, and contains
the expansion’ chamber. The method of obtaining a leak-proof
joint at the terminals is clearly shown. The sealing compound
with which the joint between the cover and jar is made is
shown in black at the top.

Sectional View of Cover, Plug in Place. Air Lock (A) In Po-
sition to Allow Free Escape of Gas Through Passages (BB)

‘Top View of Cover and Filling Plug, Plug Removed
-
£

°c 8 a @

Sectional View of Cover, Plug Removed. Alr Passages (BB)

Closed and Air Lock (A) in Position to Prevent Overfilling
Fig. 46

98 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

Figure 46 shows the Non-Flooding Vent and Filling Plug used —
in the ‘‘Exide’’ Battery. This is described by the Electric Storage
Battery Company as follows, in one of its bulletins: |

From the illustrations of the vent and filling plug, it will be |
seen that they provide both a vented stopper (vents F, G, H) and
an automatic device for the preventing of overfilling and flood-
ing. In a simple and effective manner, the amount of water that
can be put into the cells is limited to the cxact amount needed
to replace that lost by evaporation. This is accomplished by
means of the hard rubber valve (A) within the battery cover
and with which the top of the filing plug (E) engages, as shown
in the illustrations. The action of removing the plug (E) turns
this valve (A), closing the air passage (BB), and forming an air
tight chamber (C) in the top of the cell. When water is poured
in, it cannot rise in this air space (C) so as to completely fill
the cell, As soon as the proper level is reached, the waiter rises
in the filling tube (D) and gives a positive indication that suffi-
cient water has been added. Should, however, the filling be con-
tinued, the excess will be pure water only, not acid. On re-
placing the plug (E), valve (A) is automatically turned, opening

the air passages (BB), leaving

Sectional Views of Cover the air chamber (C) available for

the expansion of the solution,

which occurs when the battery is
working.

Fig. 47 shows the top construc-
tion, and Figure 48 the method
of filling USL batteries. The
top is in one piece, and dome
shaped so as to give strength,
and to provide for an expansion
chamber large enough to allow
for the greatest expansion of
electrolyte which is likely to oc-

; . cur, even in the severest charge.
with Bushings and Post Straps The holes through which the ter-
minals posts pass each have a

lead-antimony bushing which is flanged and molded in with the
rubber so as to form a leak-proof joint. In assembling the battery,

;
Z
p
G

g
y)
4
g
y
y
y
4
4

MANUFACTURE OF STORAGE BATTERIES 99

the cover is placed over the posts, and both the post and flange lead-
burned to the connecting links. Figures 47 and 48 show clearly the
large expansion chamber and the method of filling with distilled
water. This is done as follows:
A finger is placed over
the vent tube shown in Fig-
ure 48. The water is then
poured in through the fill-
ing tube. When the water
reaches the bottom ‘of the
tube, the air imprisoned in
the expansion chamber can
no longer escape. Conse-
quently the water can rise
no higher in this chamber,
but simply fills up the tube.
Water is added till it
reaches the top of the tube.
The finger is then removed
from the vent tube. This
allows the air to escape
from the expansion ‘cham-
ber. The water will there-
fore fall in the filling tube,
and rise slightly in the ex-
pansion chamber. This con-
struction makes it impossi-
ble to overfill the battery, _
provided that the finger is
held on the vent tube as di-
rected.

rere

Cases.

The wooden ease in which
the battery cells are ‘placed
is usually made of the best
grade of white oak, which
is kiln dried before being used to make it as nearly acid proof as
Possible. The wood is inspected carefully, and all pieces are re-

Fig. 48

100 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

jected that are weather-checked, or contain worm-holes or knots.
The wood is sawed into various thicknesses, and then cut to the
proper lengths and widths. The wood is passed through other
machines that cut in the dovetails, put the tongue on the bottom
for the joints, stamp on the part number, drill the holes for the
serews or bolts holding the handles, cut the grooves for the seal-
ing compound, ete. The several pieces are then assembled and
glued together, this being done, in the Willard factory, by one

Fig. 49. Battery Box or Case with Handles, It Is Made from Kiln-Dried Oak
Lumber and Thickly Coated with Acid-Proof Paint. All Metal Parts, Other Than
Lead, Are Lead-Coated to Keep Them from Corrosion by the Acid in the Battery
Solution

machine. The finishing touches are then put on, these consisting
of cutting the cases to the proper heights, sandpapering the boxes,
ete. The cases are then inspected and are ready to be painted.

Asphaltum paint is generally used, the bottoms and tops being

given three coats, and the sides two. The handles are then put
on by machinery, and the box is complete, and ready for assem-
bling.

Assembling and Finishing.

The first step in the assembly of a battery is to burn the correct
number of positive and negative plates to their connecting straps,

MANUFACTURE OF STORAGH BAYTRRIES 101

thus forming the positive an@ negat %< gentipe or ““elements.””
The ‘‘burning”’ consists of melting the straps drfd lugs on the
plates together with an oxygen-hydrogen, or oxygeu-acetylene
flame so as to form one solid mass of lead. Positive and negative
groups are next put together, with the separators between them.
The completed groups are placed into the jars which are filled
with electrolyte up to the proper points. The covers are put in
position on the jars and the sealing compound poured over the
joint between cover and jar so as to make a leak-proof joint.
Figure 50 shows a cross-section of a completed cell.

nk
Sealing
P ng
ate
Ne

Fig. 50

The completed cells are now ‘‘formed”’ again, a current of
about one-half ampere per plate being sent through the cell for
six to seven days. When the plates have thus been formed again,
the negative plate again consists of pure spongy lead, and
the positive of lead peroxide. When the second forming is
finished, the cells are put in the wooden case, the connecting
links burned to the strap posts, nameplate put on, date stamped
on, a careful general inspection given, specific gravity again meas-
ured, and the battery is ready for use on the car.

CHAPTER 14.
THE WORK SHOP. GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS.

The degree of success which the battery repairman attains de- |
pends to a considerable extent upon the workshop in which the
batteries are handled. It is, of course, desirable to be able to |
build your shop, and thus be able to have everything arranged
as you wish. If you must work in a rented shop, select a place
which has plenty of light and ventilation. The ventilation is
especially important on account of the acid fumes from the bat-
teries. A shop which receives most of its light from the north is
the best, as the light is then more uniform during the day, and
the direct rays of the sun are avoided. Figure 51 shows a light,

Fig, 51. ‘Typical Work Room Showing Bench About 84 Inches High, Tanks of
Hydrogen and Oxygen for Lead Burning, Hot, Plates for Melting ‘Sealing Cot
bound and Hand: Drill-Press for Drilling off Top Connector

102
|

THE WORKSHOP. GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 103

well ventilated workroom. At least 600 square feet of floor sur-
face are needed, a shop 25 feet square being well suited for a
small repair business.

The fioor should be in good condition, since acid rots the
wood and if the floor is already in a poor condition, the acid will
soon eat through it. A tile floor, as described below, is best. A
wooden floor should be thoroughly scrubbed, using water to which
washing soda has been added. Then give the floor a coat of
asphaltum paint, which should be applied very hot so as to flow
into all the cracks in the wood. When the first coat is dry, several
more coats should be given. Whenever you make a solution of
soda for any purpose, do not throw it away when you are through
with it. Instead, pour it on the floor where the acid is most likely
to be spilled. This will neutralize the acid and prevent it from
rotting the wood.

If you can afford to build a shop, make it of brick, with a floor
of vitrified brick, or of tile which is not less than two inches
thick, and is preferably eight inches square. The seams should
not be less than one-elghth inch wide, and not wider than
one-fourth. They should be grouted with asphaltum, melted as hot
and as thin as possible, (not less than 450°F). This should be
poured in the seams. The brick or tile should be heated near the
seams before pouring in the asphaltum. When all the seams have
been filled, heat them again. After the second heating, the
asphaltum may shrink, and it may be necessary to pour in more
asphaltum.

If possible, the floor should slope evenly from one end of the
room to the other, with a drop of about one inch to the foot. A
lead drainage trough and pipe at the lower end of the shop will
carry off the acid and electrolyte.

It is a good plan to give all work benches and storage racks
and shelves at least two coatings of hot asphaltum paint. This
will prevent rotting by the acid.

Shop Equipment.

The exact equipment of any shop will be governed by the
size and shape of the shop, and the amount of money available
for fitting it up. Six things are absolutely essential. These are:

104 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

1, Work benches with vise.

2. Lead burning outfit.

3. Sink with water supply.

4, Charging bench and equipment.

5. Shelving, for storing boxes, plates, jars, tools, burning lead,
€.
6.

. Stove for heating sealing compound.

Fig. 62. Suggested Layout for a Small Battery Repair Shop

The arrangement of these parts will depend upon the size and
shape of the workshop, and the ideas of the repairman. Figure
52 shows a convenient design for a shop 25 feet square, and
figure 53 is from an actual photograph of an up-to-date, pro-
gressive small repairshop. Near the door is the desk where the

THE WORKSHOP. GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 105

»0ok-keeping is done. A table is placed next to it for catalogues,
nagazines, etc., and for eating lunch.

The work bench extends across one end of the shop, and is six-
een feet long. At one end is a sink, in which the sediment may
»e washed out of the jars. Figure 54 is a photograph. The bent
dipe extending upward is perforated with a number of 1-16 inch
roles. In cleaning out jars, the battery box is inverted over the

Fig. 53. Corner of Workshop, Showing Burning Outfit, Burning Bench and Vises

Pipe. The water supply is controlled by a foot operated valve,
so that the box may be held in both hands while it is washed. At
the other end of the bench is the lead burning outfit, the use of
which is explained later. The bench should be made of lumber
two inches thick, and given several coats of hot asphaltum paint.

Special Work Bench.

The cross -shaped, double work bench shown at the ieft in Fig-
ure 52 is of a special design, and requires a detailed explanation.
The bench is to be used by two men, one sitting at each end, and
with the following explanation, you should have little difficulty

106 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

in constructing one. Figure 55 is a photograph of this bench,
as it has been used for several years. Figure 56 is a drawing
giving dimensions. Give the various parts of the bench a good
coat of asphaltum paint, not too thick, as you assemble it so as to
cover the surfaces which will later be covered by other parts‘

Fig. 54, Sink with Faucet, and Extra Swinging Arm Pipe for Washing Out Jars.
Four Inch Paint Brush for Washing Battery Cases
and thus be impossible to paint. When completed, give the bench
a second coat of asphaltum, and let it dry thoroughly before
using.

The bench should have a permanent location so that gas, if
available, can be piped to it. Otherwise, a gasoline torch may
be used. It is a good plan to have it near a wall or partition
where each workman may have, within easy reach, shelves on

THE WORKSHOP. GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 107

hich are kept labeled boxes with parts for different batteries
process of repair and rebuilding. You will note that there are
1 middle of bench, directly in front of each workman, elevated
aelves, one for each workman, forming two pockets for tools,
> that each may keep his own tools separate, with very little
hance of becoming mixed. On the edge of shelves you ean put
everal nails and hang any special wrenches, such as Exide lead
ut wrench, monkey wrench, a pair of snips, a lead funnel, and

Fig. 55. Double Work Bench

a hammer or two, (bore holes in handles so you can hang up.)
Tn each workman’s separate pocket there should be a pair of
rubber gloves, four screw drivers, four putty knives,14 and ¥4 inch
chisels, 2 pairs bent nosed pliers, 2 or 3 pairs different sizes of
gas pliers, a good knife, a wire brush, a lead pencil, some good
Tags and as asortment of pieces of boards 144x7% inches, and
just long enough to go in between the handles of the different
standard makes of batteries. These should be oiled, or a thin
film of vaseline spread over them. They are used to even up

108 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

the separators in assembling, and also in pressing down the top
covers when finishing rebuilding of batteries, as described later.
You should also have one piece 114x% inch and one piece 114x!4
inch, each 8 or 10 inches long.

You will find the tool scraper (shown at J in figure 56) to
the right of each workman very convenient for removing the

DOUBLE WORK BENCH

Fig. 56

compound sticking to your tools, Always have a box under it
to catch the compound. When a battery is on the bench and the
workman sitting up to it, straddling battery and bench, he is
in the best possible position to open it.

A gas, gasoline, or oil pilot light should be mounted on one side
of the two uprights. By using two screw drivers in opening a
battery, one can be warming in the flame, while you are using
the other.

THE WORKSHOP. GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 109
Shelving.

The dimensions of the shelving depend upon the nature of the
material to be stored. For miscellaneous. parts, such as empty
jars, empty boxes, groups of plates, tools, separators, cans of
grease, bottles of ammonia, or soda solution, and so on, one
inch stock is strong enough. For storing completely assembled
batteries, two inch lumber should be used as they must carry

Fig. 67. Typical Stockroom Showing Heavy Shelving Necessary for Storing Batterles

loads of hundreds of pounds. The vertical distance between
shelves should be two feet if there is sufficient space, in order to be
able to take specific gravity readings without removing the bat-
teries from the shelves. A space should be left between batteries
for ventilation. Figure 57 shows the type of shelving required.

Concerning Light.

Many battery shops are unfortunately situated in basements.
Light is essential to good work, so you must have plenty of

110 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

good light and at the right place. For a light that is needed
from one end of a bench to the other, to look mto each individual
battery, or to take the reading of each individual battery, there is
nothing better than a 60 Watt tungsten lamp under a good metal
shade, dark on outside and white on inside. |

A unique way to hang a light and have it movable from one
end of the bench to the other, is to stretch a wire from one end
of the bench to the other. Steel or copper about 10 or 12 B &S
gauge may be used. Stretch it about four or five feet above top
of bench directly above where the light is most needed. If
you have double charging bench, stretch the wire directly above
middle of bench. Before fastening wire to support, slip an old
fashioned porcelain: knob (or an ordinary thread spool) on the
wire. The drop cord is to be tied to this knob or spool at what-
ever height you wish the light to hang (a few inches lower than
your head is the right height). |

Put the ceiling rosette above middle, endwise of bench; eut
your drop cord long enough so that you can slide the ight from
one end of bench to the other after being attached to rosette.
Put vaseline on the wire so the fumes of gas will not corrode it.
This will make the spool slide easily. This gives you a movable,
flexible light, with which you will reach any battery on bench
for inspection. The work bench light can be rigged up the same
way and a 75 or 100 Watt nitrogen lamp used,

Charging Methods.

A man must have food and exercise to retain his health and
strength. Moreover, there must be a proper balance between
the food and exercise. Unused muscles become stiff and weak,
and food alone will not restore their strength. A man who takes
more food than his body needs becomes fat, sluggish and diseased.
Tf, on the other hand, he works hard, and does not eat a suffi-
cient amount of food, his body becomes exhausted, and he is sick,
and unable to work. Even when no exercise is taken, the man
must have food, or he will die of starvation.

The storage battery is quite human in many respects. It must
have the proper amount of food and exercise in order to be

THE. WORKSHOP. GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 111

in the best of health. It must have food, even though it may
be idle; but, on the other hand, it must not have too much food
at any time, even though it may be working regularly and using
ip energy supplied by the food.

A battery, unlike a man, has no mind to enable it to regulate
its food and exercise, and is entirely at the mercy of the ear
ywner and garage battery man. When called upon it must work
as long as a bit of energy remains, and until it is completely ex-
aausted and often hopelessly injured. It must also accept all
the food offered to it,,even though the amount is far in excess of
that needed to restore the amount of energy used up in doing its
work. Since the battery is thus unable to defend itself against
any abuse and mistreatment to which it may be subjected, it
osecomes necessary for the car owner and repairman to think for
the battery, and to treat it as he does his own body, giving it
the proper amount of food and exercise.

Electricity is the battery’s food, and you feed the battery
when you charge it. The electricity must be digested just as
our own food is.- The process of digestion in the battery consists,
of the formation of spongy lead and lead peroxide from the lead
sulphate. When all the sulphate has been thus changed, the bat-
tery has received as much food as it can digest, and if it is given
more, the energy of the food will be wasted.

The battery works by using the energy resulting from the di-
gestion of the electricity, and it should not be forced to work
until its energy is completely exhausted, any more than a man
should work until he drops from weariness. A man in such an
overworked condition is sick, and requires careful nursing and
feeding to restore his health. An overworked battery or starved
battery requires slow feeding, because its weakened elements
cannot absorb the food or charging current quickly, but must
be charged at a low rate.

The feeding of a battery is in the repairman’s hands, and he
must see that the battery is not overworked or starved any more
than he overworks or starves himself. Thus, charging the bat-
tery means more than simply sending a current through it. The
eurrent must not be supplied faster than the battery can absorb

112 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

it. Batteries of different sizes must not be given the same amount
of food any more than men of different sizes must be.

The great majority of battery men have adopted the plan of
connecting batteries in series while charging them. This is un-
doubtedly the cheapest and most convenient method, but has
several disadvantages.

Batteries which have different voltages and capacities require
different charging currents, and great care should be taken that
the batteries which are connected in series require approximately
the same charging currents, and are of the same voltage. Garage-
men are often careless in this respect, and the smaller batteries are

PosiTvEe NEGATIVE
BATTERY BATT ERY

Fig. 58

POSITIVE CHARGING NEGATIVE CHARGH
LINE WwWiRme LINE WIRE

CHARGING BATTERIES IN SERIES |
Fig. 59

greatly overcharged and literally ‘‘boiled to death.’’ In charg-.
ing, therefore, do not connect batteries of various sizes in series |
and send the same charging current through them. The smaller
batteries will heat up in their attempt to absorb the heavier
current required by the larger batteries, and may be permanently
injured.

Furthermore, the batteries should be in approximately the same
state of discharge, as shown by the specific gravity readings. If
these readings differ considerably among the various batteries,
those with the highest readings should be watched carefully, and
removed from the circuit when there is no further rise in specific .
gravity after all cells are gassing freely. Never start a charge

THE WORKSHOP. GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 113

at such a high rate that gassing takes place immediately, or
before the specific gravity stops rising. |

In connecting a battery to a charging line, always connect the ‘

positive battery to the positive line wire, and connect the nega-
tive battery terminal to the negative line wire, figure 58. If
you connect a number of batteries in series for charging, connect
the positive terminal of one battery to the negative terminal
of the next, figure 59. .

Instead of connecting all the cells in series, it is a good plan
to have several charging circuits in parallel, and connect enough
batteries in series on each circuit to obtain the correct charging
eurrent. In this way, batteries of various capacities may be
charged at once, each circuit being composed of batteries of ap-
proximately the same capacity.

The sum of the voltages of the batteries which are connected
in series should never be greater than the voltages of the charg-
ing circuit. This would result in the batteries discharging back
into the line, instead of being charged.

Charging Equipment.

The apparatus to be employed in charging starting and light-
ing batteries depends largely upon the source of electricity which
is available. If a 110 volt, direct current supply is used, .the
simplest and cheapest apparatus is the charging bench with lamps
for resistance, which will be described. Instead of the lamps, a
motor-generator set may be used, which has a 110 volt, direct cur-
rent motor, and a low voltage generator. ‘Such an outfit is far
more expensive than the lamps, however, and has no marked
advantages to justify its installation.

Where only alternating current is available, a rectifier or motor-
generator must be installed. The rectifier changes the alternating
current into a direct current. It may do this by means of a
mechanical device, an electrolytic cell, or a tube of mercury
vapor. The motor-generator set consists of an alternating cur-
rent motor driving a direct current generator. Both the Mercury
Arc Rectifier and the Motor-Generator are efficient.

114 THE AUTOMOBILE. STORAGE BATTERY
Double Charging Bench.

The charging bench, as shown in Figures 60 and 61 is designed
to accommodate thirty-two batteries. The bench shown in Fig-

ure 60 has been in actual use for several years. The wiring shown ,

in Figure 62 is somewhat different from that of the bench shown
in the photograph, and is intended to furnish any current up to
about 30-36 amperes. This type of bench has several advantages.
Ist. It occupies a minimum amount of floor space.
2nd. Any number of batteries from 1 to 32 may be charged at

Fig. 60. Double Charging Bench

the same time. Any battery may be disconnected from the charg-
ing circuit by throwing up the knife switch for that battery.
This will allow the other batteries to continue charging.

3rd. To each switch are attached two 18 inch flexible, No. 8
rubber covered wires, each of which has a hold-fast clip at the
free end. These clips are snapped on the battery posts in an
instant. This arrangement does away with the unsightly, time-
consuming, inefficient method of tying batteries in series with any
“odd bits of wire which may be at hand, and after you once use
this bench, you will never go back to the old, untidy, haphazard
way of charging.

4th. The elevated shelf extending down the center of the
bench is convenient for holding jars of distilled water, chalk for

THE WORKSHOP.: GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 115

marking on the battery what is to be done with it, such as,
1 D.C. for one dead cell, R.B. for rebuild, R.S. for reseal, ete.
The hydrometer may also be kept on the shelf.

L668 6
3-9:

BATTERY DOUBLE CHARGING BENCH

. 2
6
; i
| a
3 hes t—+ | i
5 * ow | \
. a} NI | U1 «1
4 iw | E 8
b to
é ae ® | o La
=| \ | ae
14 ty |
(< S
Hea}? 0)
. \e +—-+ |
< ls i
Fie I\ °
$ |i 4 |
;
% ito

Figure 61 shows the various dimensions in sufficient detail to
enable you to build the bench. Give each part a coat of asphal-
tum paint before assembling the bench. When you have the bench
assembled, give it two coats of hot asphaltum paint, being care-

116 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

ful to thoroughly cover all parts. If you want to charge more
than 32 batteries at one time extend the bench so as to make it
wider, and add more switches.

To do this use lumber of the same thickness as the top, and
twelve inches wide. Brace with two by fcurs nailed to the side
of the bench.

+32:
rh

Fig. 62

Figure 62 shows the wiring diagram, using 36 thirty-two
candle power, carbon filament lamps. These give one ampere each
on 110 volts. Other sized lamps may be used, depending on the
amount of current desired. The switches shown at A, B, C, D,E
and F control the various groups of lamps. These may be the or-
dinary 10 ampere snap switches, or 10 ampere, single pole, single
throw knife switches. Any current from 1 to 36 amperes may be

THE WORKSHOP. GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 117

obtained in one ampere steps by turning on one or more of these
switches as needed. The snap switch covers should be dipped in
hot asphaltum paint, and the current carrying contacts covered
with vaseline or grease.

The board carrying the lamps should be mounted at one end of
the bench, as shown in figures 60 and 61. 1t should be of one-inch
stock, which has been given two coats of asphaltum paint. The
porcelain sockets should be the ‘‘Edison cleat receptacle’’ or of
similar design. These sockets have two screw holes in front for
fastening to the board. They also have the binding posts in front.
The wire connections for the whole board should be made on the
front. For the connections to the sockets, use No. 12 rubber cov-
ered wire. For all other connections, including the two feed wires
to the battery switches on the bench, use No. 6 rubber covered wire
or cable. No. 10 wire may be used if the No. 6 cannot be obtained.
Keep all metallic parts covered with vaseline or grease to prevent
corrosion from acid fumes.

The double pole, double throw switch with fuse extensions
should have a -capacity of 50 amperes. This may be bought
mounted on a slate base, or the various parts may be bought un-
mounted, and then mounted directly on the board. Use 50 am-
pere enclosed fuses or 50 ampere fuse links for this switch. The
lower studs are to be used for an auxiliary source of power, such
as a rectifier, motor generator, or a shop dynamo driven by a gas
or gasoline engine. These will be described later. The ammeter
should be of the round, iron-clad switch board type, with a scale
reading up to 50 amperes. The connections to this meter will
probably have to be made in back of the board.

Terminals M, N, and O are provided for the purpose of 1 using
the lamp bank for tests on anything in other parts of the shop
which may require an adjustable current. If two wires are at-
tached to terminals N and O, the current will first pass through
the lamps, and it may be adjusted to any value within the range
of the lamp bank. If the wires are attached to M and 0, the full
line voltage will be available for test purposes. The binding posts
on the board should be made of heavy brass, with knurled heads
about three-fourths of an inch in diameter.

Instead of lamps, you may use Ward Leonard Enameled Re-

118 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

sistance Units, ‘‘EB’’-size. These are fitted with standard Edison
bases for screwing into the lamp bases. These units are made in
various capacities from 0.24 to 71 amperes each. The units listed
as EB 90 will each give approximately one ampere, which is the
current obtained through one 32 candlepower, carbon filament
lamp.

If you can afford it, make two lamp and switch boards, putting
oue at each end of the bench, and connecting sixteen of the battery
switches to each board. Such a bench is more useful than one
having only one lamp board and charging line. The reason is
that the majority of batteries have a ‘‘starting’’ and a ‘‘finishing’”’
rate of charge. That is, when these batteries are first put on
charge, a rather high rate is used until the cells are gassing.
Then, the current is lowered to the ‘‘finishing’’ rate. All bat-
teries in the charging line will not in general begin to gas at the
same time, because the internal condition varies among the bat-
teries, and some will begin to gas much more quickly than others.
Since the current must be reduced in the gassing cells, it is con-
venient to disconnect these batteries from the line which is still
carrying the ‘‘starting’’ current, and connect them to a second
line carrying the ‘‘finishing’’ current.

The pivot screws, switch blades, spring contacts the blades enter
should be kept covered with graphite and oils or vaseline to keep
them from corroding from the acid fumes. For the same purpose,
the hold-fast clips, after they are connected to the drop cord or
flexible wire should be dipped in hot thin asphaltum paint together
with several inches of the drop cord to keep them from being
attacked by acid. It is well to make up a few extra cords 18
inches or 2 feet long, with hold-fast clips at each end, as they are
handy in connecting two or more batteries in series and in paral-
leling batteries. It is well to make two charging benches while
you are at it, instead of just one, and not mount the center shelf
on one of them until really needed, but use the bench as a con-
venient place to keep charged batteries. Always keep your bat-
teries in an orderly way on this bench, and whenever you put
one on it, be sure and have the positive end in so that the tag,
which should always be attached to the negative handle, will hang
out. Then you can readily find any battery you are looking for.

THE WORKSHOP. GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS | 11

In Figures 63 and 64 are shown the wiring diagrams for othe
charging boards to be used on a 110 volt, direct current circuit.

The connections shown may be made by any automobile repair-
man or by any electrician. In Figure 63 the necessary resistance

wi,

Sux eke
HeSa ve x
fh A maw 8
ree “~ Q

\ = . De
Q GX ~
HQ <u es
#2 fa eh Q
meat LE t
ce ox PE x
HEES FO Q
AHR AN Go

TEITIIT eee

Ke
NR
HN y +
ay:
eet 7
~ 3 { wu Y
G Sku @:
§ GEN EVA
oa +
N = :
SE etal

Fig. 63. Another Type of Charging Board

is supplied by means of five banks of incandescent lamps, one
bank carrying two bulbs, one carrying four and the remaining
three carrying eight bulbs, each. At the left is shown a double
Pole, single throw knife switch of 25 amperes capacity to one side

120 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

of which the supply line is attached. From one blade on the other
side of the switch a line leads to one side of each of the lamp
banks, and from the other blade a line leads through the ammeter

w
=
z

= o%

x -2
wor Ky
De wy oH “* sf
+Qers QD
MEK vse @
<8 x
& ny A ua)
oN zs af &
w QqaQa ia
movi st f
Frigg ra §

" (MOREA Ay O

Fig. 64. Resistance Coils for Charging Batteries

le
‘teh

54m peres

Throw Knife S,

rf Double Pole Sin

M0 belts OC

to the bus-bar shown at K-L-M-N-O. From the other side of lamp
bank number 1 a wire leads to the single pole, single throw, 29

ampere knife switch which carries a 20 ampere fuse, this switch |

being marked E. From the bank of four lamps a line leads to a

|
|
|
|

THE WORKSHOP. GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 121

similar switch, F, and from the banks of eight lamps each, lines
lead to the switches G, H and J. These lines may be connected
with each other by means of the single pole, single throw, 25
ampere knife switches A, B, C and D. Batteries to be charged are
attached between the fused switches and the bus-bar at the points
marked V, W, X, Y and Z.

Carbon bulbs of 50 watt or 16 candle power capacity should be
used in each of the thirty lamp sockets. One bulb of this size
allows a current flow of approximately 14 ampere. ‘With the
arrangement shown, batteries of five different ampere-hour ca-
pacities may be charged at the same time, each capacity at its
proper amperage. The various amperages may be obtained ac-
cording to the following instructions, all switches being left open —
except those you are directed to close. The main line switch
should, of course, be closed for all the combinations given:

1 ampere—Attach battery at V, close switch E.

2 amperes—Attach battery at W, close switch F.

3 amperes—Attach the battery at W and close switches A, E,
and F’. |

4 amperes—Attach the battery at X, Y or Z and close switches
G, H or J, respectively.

5 amperes—Attach the battery at X and close switches A, B, E
and G.. |

6 amperes—Attach the battery at X and close switches B, F
and G.

7 amperes—Attach the battery at X and close switches A, B, H,
F and G.

8 amperes—Attach the battery at Y and close switches C, G
and H. .

9 amperes—Attach the battery at Y and close switches A, B, C,
BE, G and H.

10 amperes—Attach the battery at Y and close switches B, C, F,
G and H.

11 amperes—Attach the battery at Y and close switches A, B, C,
E, F, G and H.

12 amperes—Attach the battery at Z and close switches C, D, G,
H and J.

122 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

13 amperes—Attach the battery at Z and close switches A, B, C,
D, E, G, H and J.

14 amperes—Attach the battery at Z and close switches B, C, D,
F, G, H and J.

15 amperes—aAttach the battery at Z and close all switches.

With the positive and negative wires connected as shown, the
positive terminals of the battery should always be connected to
the bus-bar and the negative terminals to the switch leads. In
case it is desired to charge two or more batteries requiring the
Same current they should first be placed in series with each
other by connecting the positive terminal of one to the negative
terminal of the next one, thus leaving one positive and one nega-
tive terminal, the positive to be connected to the bus-bar and the
negative to the switch lead. It will be seen that this method
allows you to handle any number of batteries at any rate of charge
from one to fifteen amperes. For connecting batteries in series in
this way, make about two dozen lengths of No. 12 flexible lamp
cord, each about one foot long, and having a ‘‘hoid-fast’’ snap on
terminal on each end. By using 100 watt or 32 candle power bulbs
with carbon filaments the charging rate will be exactly doubled
for each connection; that is, where one ampere was given two will
be secured, where two amperes were given four will be secured,
etc. In this case the switch and fuse capacities must be doubled.

In Figure 64 is illustrated a system similar to that described
with the exception that coils of resistance wire are used in place
of the lamp banks. The conneetions for various currents will be
exactly the same as in the lamp system and the explanation using
the reference letters will be the same in all particulars. The coil
windings from number one to number five may be made up as
follows:

Coil 1—With German Silver wiring, 75 feet of 28 gauge. With
Nichrome wiring, 30 feet of 28 guage.

Coil 2—-With German Silver wiring, 38 feet of 28 gauge. With
Nichrome wiring, 15 feet of 28 gauge.

Coils 3, 4 and 5—With German Silver wiring, 19 feet of 28 gauge.
With Nichrome wiring, 8 feet of 28 gauge.

—

. ee
THE WORKSHOP. GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 123
‘Motor-Generator Sets.

Small motor-generator sets with control panels may be pur-
chased from any of the larger electrical manufacturers and supply
houses. A list of such companies is given in Chilton’s Automobile
Trade Directory. In selecting a motor-generator set, the voltage
of the supply circuit, the maximum and minimum charging rates,
the voltage of the batteries, and the number of batteries to be
charged at one time determine the size and type of the motor and
generator. The current which the generator is capable of deliver-
ing depends upon the maximum and minimum charging rates.
The charging rates recommended by battery manufacturers vary
from a minimum of about 3 amperes to a maximum of approxi-
mately 25 amperes. The average length of time required for a
normal complete charge varies from eight.to twelve hours, but in
charging sulphated batteries, a much longer time, at a low rate

is required. The charging voltage is from 2.6 to 2.7 volts per cell.

Multiplying this by the total number of cells in the batteries which
are to be connected in series on the charging circuit gives the.

' generator voltage.

The motor-generator sets include the necessary voltmeter, am-
meter, and rheostat. Motor and generator shafts are coupled di-
rectly together, and are mounted on solid timbers. The meters
and rheostat are usually mounted on the frames of the two
machines, and the entire set may be mounted on a bench. Charg-

ing eurrent is regulated by varying the generator voltage with

the rheostat, which changes the resistance of the generator field
circuit. |
Mercury Arc Rectifier.

The operation of the mercury arc rectifier depends upon the
fact that a tube containing mercury vapor under a low pressure
and provided with two electrodes, one of mercury and the other
of some other conductor, offers a very high resistance to a current
tending to pass through the tube from the mercury electrode to
the other electrode, but offers a very low resistance to a current
tending to pass through the tube in the opposite direction. The
low resistance offered when the current tends to pass through the

124 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

tube toward the mercury electrode depends upon the formation
of an arc in the tube by tilting it so the mercury bridges the gap
between the two electrodes just for an instant, as will be explained
more fully later on.

Mercury arc rectifiers find their chief application as a means
of charging storage batteries. They are used to some extent in

SOURCE oF
| ALTERNATING CURRENT |

CONDEN SING

CHAM BER.

Fig. 65. Mercury Arc Rectifier

supplying current to certain types of direct-current are lamps
from an alternating current supply circuit. Some very large mer-
cury arc rectifiers have been constructed and used on electric cars
and locomotives, power being supplied to the car or locomotive
from a high-voltage alternating current trolley, the pressure
being reduced on the car or locomotive by means of statie trans-
formers and then converted into a low voltage direct current suit-

THE WORKSHOP. GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 125

able for the direct current motors. This scheme promises to work
out quite well with the higher voltage direct-current motors, such
as 1,000 or 1,200 volt kind. The chief objection to this appli-
cation of the mercury arc rectifier lies in the difficulty of pro-
ducing a tube of rugged construction and lasting qualities.
The outline of a mercury arc tube is shown in Figure 65. It is
made of glass in the smaller sizes used in charging storage bat-
teries. It is exhausted to a high degree of vacuum and contains
a small quantity of mercury in the bottom. The upper part of
the tube is used only as a condensing chamber wherein the heated
mereury-vapors are cooled and condensed so they may again settle
at the bottom. The cathode, or negative electrode is always at
the bottom and two or more anodes, or positive poles, are arranged
around the side of the tube. Two anodes are required for a single-
|phase operation and three for three-phase operation. There is
tito a small starting electrode, ‘‘C,’’ connected to one side of
the alternating-current circuit through a resistance and used for
starting the are. When the rectifier tube is rocked so as to form
,and break a bridge of mercury between the mercury cathode at
the bottom and the starting anode ‘‘C,’’ a small are is formed.
This small are produces mercury vapor in the tube and the are
immediately jumps to one or the other of the main anodes and
| then alternates on these during regular operation.
The operation of the mercury arc rectifier may be analyzed as
follows: Let us assume an instant where the point ‘‘A’’ is posi-
' tive and the point ‘‘B”’ is negative in Figure 65. Current will then
flow from anode ‘‘1’’ at the left to cathode ‘‘2,’’ through the load
‘“‘L,’? which in this case is a storage battery,through the reactance
‘“Rl,”’ and back to the negative terminal of the source at ‘‘B.”’
The current cannot jump from anode ‘‘1’’ to anode‘‘3’’on account
of the high counter-electromotive force of the are. The full line
arrows show the direction of the current for the half cycle of the
alternating current wave when the terminal ‘‘A’’ is positive and
the terminal ‘‘B’’ is negative. During the next half cycle the
terminal ‘‘B’’ is positive and the current flows from ‘‘B’’ to the
anode ‘‘3,’’ to the cathode ‘‘2,’’ through the load ‘‘L,’’ and the
-yeactance ‘‘R,’’ back to the negative terminal of the source
which in this case is the terminal ‘‘A.’’ The dotted arrows show

126 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

the path of the current during this half of the cycle. During a
whole eyele the cathode ‘‘2’’ is continuously negative, but first
one anode and then the other is active. Should the voltage and
current become zero at exactly the same time the are would be-
come extinguished and operation cease. In order to prevent an

Fig. 66. Wave Form of Mercury Arc Rectifier

occurrence of this kind the reactances ‘‘R,’’ and ‘‘R,’’ are intro-
duced. At the end of the first half cycle described above when
the line voltage has dropped to zero, the reactance ‘‘R,’’ main-
tains the current and a local circuit is formed through ‘‘R,”’
anode ‘‘1,’’ cathode ‘‘2’’ and load ‘‘L,’’ which maintains the are |
until the voltage at ‘‘B’’ has increased to a value.that will main-

THE WORKSHOP. GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS = 127

tain the are. The rectifier thus makes use of both half waves, or
the entire alternating current, and the result is quite a uniform
pulsating unidirectional current. On account of the reactance in
the circuit the current in the load never falls to zero value and,
in fact, with sufficient resistance, may: be made very nearly con-
stant. This condition is not always desirable as it produces a
very bad distortion of the alternating current wave.

The general form of the waves produced by a mercury are
rectifier are shown in Figure 66. The upper wave represents the
alternating voltage wave. .

The second and third waves are those of the currents in the
two positive electrodes. The fourth wave is a combination of
the second and third and it represents the current in the load
“¢T.?? .

At present mercury arc rectifiers are generally used with auto-
transformers, and these transformers are. usually designed in such
a manner as to make the reactances ‘‘R,’’ and ‘‘R,,’’ as shown
in Figure 65 unnecessary, sufficient reactance being provided in
the auto-transformer to accomplish the desired results. A proper
proportion of reactance may be made to stop the action of the
rectifier when the current falls to a certain value. This arrange-
ment is particularly useful in connection with storage battery
charging.

The resistance ‘‘R’’ connected in series with the starting elec-
trode ‘‘C,’’ as shown in Figure 65, is to prevent an excessive cur-
rent passing through the circuit when the tube is tilted for start-
ing.

The temperature of a tube must never be allowed to rise too
high as the life of the tube is greatly reduced. Some of the

larger-tubes are immersed in oil to facilitate cooling. The vacuum
in the tube may be tested by removing the tube from its supports
and shaking it, if the vacuum is good, the mercury will give out
a metallic sound. If the tube is dirty on the inside and there is
a tendency for the mercury to stick to the sides, the vacuum is
poor. |

An average life of over 600 hours is claimed for the sizes com-
monly used in charging the batteries in electric automobiles and
in some cases a useful life of 5,000 hours has been obtained. The

128 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

average life of small tubes used in charging ignition batteries is
much greater.

The efficiency of the rectifier varies with the voltage used on
the direct-current side, as there is always a drop in voltage
through the mercury vapor, which is practically independent of
the current used. For rectifiers of 30 to 50 ampere capacity, the
drop in voltage across the rectifier terminals is equal to about —
15 volts. The lower the direct-current voltage therefore, the |
greater the percentage of loss. This loss is in addition to the
losses in the auto-transformer and brings the average efficiency |
down to 75 or 80 percent for a direct current voltage of about
80 volts.

When used for charging storage batteries, rectifiers require
considerable variation of the direct current voltage, and for this
reason are usually provided with variable reactance in the pri-
mary circuit of the transformer, also with taps in the secondary
winding. They are, as a rule, specially designed for the class of
work for which they are intended.

The Electrolytic Rectifier.

nesourceorenercy The action of the Electrolytic Rectifier is ex-
plained by the fact that certain electrolytic
, cells having electrodes of different metals will
allow a current to pass through them in one
direction only. Thus, if a plate of iron and
a plate of aluminum be immersed in a solution
of ammonium phosphate as shown diagrammat-
ically in Figure 67, and the two plates con-
nected to a source of alternating current, the
following results will be obtained.
The alternating pressure between the termin-
als A and B tends to send a current through the cell first in one di-
rection and then in the other direction, and if the resistance of the
cell was independent of the direction of the current, there would
be an alternating current produced and this current would be rep-
resented by a curve of the form shown in Figure 68, with the dis-
tance of the curve above or below the line MN corresponding to the
value of the current, the current being in one direction when it is

Fig. 67

THE WORKSHOP. GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS = 129

above the line MN and in the opposite direction when it is
below the line MN. There is, however, quite a high resistance of-
fered by the electrolytic cell when an attempt is made to send a
current through it in a direction from the aluminum to the iron
plate, and as a result of this high resistance te the current, there is
in reality practically no current through the cell in one direction

Fig. 68

Fig. 69

as compared with the current through it in the opposite direction.
This results in the current curve being of the general form shown
by the full line in Figure 69. The dotted line represents the
part of the current curve shown in Figure 68, which must be
reduced to zero by the action of the electrolytic cell. .
This resistance offered by the cell is sup-
' posedly due to a-high resistance film being
formed at the surface of the aluminum when
the current is in a direction from the alumi-
num to the electrolyte or iron plate. In the
case just described, use is made of the avail-
able pressure just one-half of the time and
hence there is current in the circuit only half
of the time. A storage battery connected in
such a circuit could not be charged very sat-
isfactorily or efficiently.
A better arrangement of the cell may be made as shown
diagrammatically in Figures 70 and 71. Two aluminum plates

Fig. 70

130 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

are used instead of one and they are connected to the|
source of alternating current through a choke coil as shown in
Figure 71. The operation of this arrangement may be followed
briefly, as follows: Let us assume there is a current in the alter-
nating current line in the direction indicated by the arrows
marked 1 and 2. The current meets with a high opposition in |

Fig. 71

trying to pass from the left-hand aluminum plate to the iron
plate and as a result, the current in this circuit is practically zero.
There is, however, a path of relatively low resistance from
the point A to the point B through the battery to the iron plate
through the cell to the right-hand aluminum plate and then to
the point C. As a result of this current passing through the

\ /

Fig. 72

\
choke coil from the point A to the point B, there will be a current |
induced, due to transformer action, in the part of the winding |
between the points B and C, and its direction will be from the |
point C toward the point B where it combines with the current
from the point A, and gives the total current through the battery.

This results in the current in the battery being 10 amperes when

THE WORKSHOP. GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 131

the current in each of the two sections of the choke coil is approx-
imately 5 amperes.

Now when the current in the alternating current circuit re-
verses, there will be no change in the direction of the current in
the two sections of the choke coil, but both will still be toward
the point B and through the battery, which results in the battery
current being of the general form shown in Figure 72. The
dotted section of the curve which was wiped out entirely by the
arrangement shown in Figure 67, is now reversed in the direction
relative to the other loops of the current curve and as a result,
all of the loops are now in the same direction, which gives a much
better charging current for the battery.

If the electrolytic cell is to be self cooling, the aluminum plates
should be of such a size that there are about 7 square inches of |
surface per ampere direct current, and the iron plate should be
at least twice this size and better still if it is three times the area
of the aluminum plates. The distance between the aluminum
plates should be about. one-half inch. The containing vessel
should be of such a size that there is approximately one square
foot of radiating surface per ampere direct current. An ordi-
nary granite-ware bucket may be used as a containing vessel.
The plates may be mounted on one-half inch strips of wood of
ample length to reach across the top of the containing vessel.
The dimensions of the plates may be made such that they will best
fit in the containing vessel and small ears may be left on their
corners to be used in attaching them to the wooden supporting
strips. The electrolyte should consist of a saturated solution of
pure neutral ammonium phosphate. The size of the plates and the
volume of the electrolyte required to fill the large containing
vessel in order to give ample radiating surface may be greatly
reduced by using some artificial means of cooling. Cold water
may be circulated through pipes placed in the electrolyte or the
electrolyte itself may be made to circulate through outside cool-
ing coils.

The direct current voltage is roughly one-half of the alternat-
ing current voltage and this relation is not fixed but depends upon
the temperature of the electrolyte and the condition of the sur-
face of the plates. mo

132 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY.

With the arrangement shown in Figure 71, it will be necessary
to reduce the direct current voltage in order to charge a six-volt
battery, if the source of alternating current is a 110-volt circuit.
This reduction can be made by means of a resistance in series
with the choke coil, or better still, by means of a small trans-
former with several secondary taps so that current at sev-
eral different voltages may- be taken from the secondary
winding. A resistance may be placed in series with the battery
and the charging current regulated by varying the amount of this
resistance. The transformer is, of course, the most efficient means
of bringing about the desired voltage reduction.

The construction of the choke coil will depend upon whether
it 1s to be connected directly to the 110-volt circuit or to the
secondary terminals of a transformer. If used directly connected
to the alternating current circuit, it may be made by winding
300 turns of No. 18 B. & S. cotton covered wire on an iron ring
5) inches in diameter. This iron ring may be made by winding a
quantity of small soft iron wire in a form until the area of the
cross section of the ring is about % sq. in.

Remember that your direct current is not steady in value and
as a result direct-current and alternating current instruments
will not indicate the same value of current, as the direct-current
instrument gives an indication of the average current and the
alternating current instrument gives an indication of the effective
current.

Other Charging Equipment.

If there is no electric lighting in the shop, it will be necessary
to install a generator and a gas, gasoline, or steam engine, or
a water-wheel installed to drive it. The generator should, of
course, be a direct current machine, and large enough to furnish
lights for the shop in addition to charging the batteries. The
size of the generator will depend upon the average number of
batteries to be charged, and the amount of money available.
Any of the large electrical manufacturers or supply houses will
give any information necessary for the selection of the type
and size of the outfit required.

THE WORKSIIOP. GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS — 133

If an old automobile engine, and radiator, gas tank, etc., are
on hand, they can be suitably mounted so as to drive the gener-
ator.

Discharge Board.

It is often desirable to make discharge tests on a battery. A
good way to determine the condition of the battery is to draw
current of several values from it, and then measure the battery

HEAVY CABLES FOR ATTACHING TO BATTERY

WIRING FOR DISCHARGE BOARD
Fig. 73

voltage and the number of ampere hours it will deliver before
discharged. ‘Trouble in a battery or cell is indicated by its
voltage dropping to a low value while the current is passing
through it. If it is desired to draw a current of approximately
100 amperes from a 6-volt battery, a special resistance is neces-
sary. For this purpose, four feet of No. 4 Nichrome wire may

134 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

be used. Mount this on the discharge board, fit it with terminals,
and attach two cables to it which may be connected to the bat-
tery which is to be tested. Measure the voltage of the battery
while discharging it through the Nichrome wire.

Another use of the discharge board is in conection with charg-
' ing and discharging a battery which has been badly sulphated.

Figure 73 shows the wiring for the discharge board. The size
and type of resistances or lamps is shown. To discharge a bat-

80 FT. OF N23
{RON WIRE

DISCHARGE BOARD

Fig. 74

tery,-snap a pair of the hold-fast clips on the battery terminals,
throw the double-pole switch for that battery down, and throw
all other double-pole switches up. Then throw the snap switches
on so as to obtain the desired discharge. The drawing shows
eight switches, for discharging eight batteries in series, or any
number from one to eight.

For the bench, use the dimensions of Figure 61, but make the
length six feet instead of sixteen.

A simpler discharge resistance is shown in Figure 74. The

:
™

THE WORKSHOP. GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS = 135

terminal on the end of the cable attached to the right hand bat-
tery post is movable, and may be clamped on any part of the
resistance wire to obtain various currents. A detail of the termi-
nal is shown at the right in figure 74. |

Tools and Equipment.

Do not attempt to handle battery repair work until you have
provided yourself with the proper tools. A good workman with
poor tools cannot do better work than an average workman with
good tools. The tools listed below are those recommended by
three of the largest battery manufacturers in the United States.

Tools recommended and sold by the U.S. Light and Heat Cor-
poration of Niagara Falls, New York:

- (1). Gas still for distilling water, in capacities of 14, 1, and
0 gallons per hour.
(2). Plate burning rack for holding connecting strap and plates
while burning.
(3). A plumber’s or tinner’s triangular scraper for scraping
posts, lugs on plates, ete. |
(4). Steel wire brush, for cleaning terminals, etc.
(5). Putty knife for removing sealing compound.
(6). Two combination pliers for pulling out elements, etc.
(7). One pair long flat nosed pliers for pulling out jars and
Separators.
(8). One pair end cutting nippers for cutting connectors, posts,
plates, lugs, ete.
(9). One coarse bastard file for cleaning lead parts, and a file
brush.
(10). One ladle for sealing compound.
(11). One Syringe hydrometer for measuring specific gravity,
drawing off electrolyte, or adding distilled water.

(12). One lead lined acid box, 24 inches by 36.inches by 24
inches high, for storing acid or separators.

(13). Bottle of 1.800 Specifie gravity electrolyte.

(14). Bottle of 1.400 Specific gravity electrolyte.

(15). Rods of lead-antimony for burning plates to straps.

(16). Rods of pure lead for burning in top connectors.

136 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

(17). Sealing compound.

The above list of tools may be obtained by communicating with
the U.S. L. factory at Niagara Falls, New York.

The next list is that recommended by the Gould Battery Com-
pany:

(1). 1 pair rubber gloves, to protect the hands from acid.

- (2). 17-inch end cutting nippers, for cutting connectors, posts,
plate, lugs, ete.

(3). 2 combination pliers, for pulling elements, ete.

(4), 1 triangular lead scraper, for. scraping burning lead,
plate lugs, ete.

(5). 1 putty knife for removing sealing compound.

(6). 1 4-inch wood chisel for removing sealing compound.

(7). 1 5-inch screw driver for removing sealing compound and
covers.

(8). 1 single end wrench for removing taper terminals.

(9). 1 10-inch file and handle, for filing plate lugs, lead, ete.

(10). 1 steel wire brush, for cleaning terminals, ete.
_ (11). 1 ball point hammer for general work.

(12). 1 10-inch ratchet brace, for drilling connecting links
loose som posts.

(13). 1 5g-inech bit stock drill for removing . 5g-inch connect-
ors.

(14). 1 %-ineh bit stock drill for removing Y%-inch connect-
ors.

(15). 1 center punch, for centering terminals to drill.

(16). 1 adjustable hack saw frame for general work.

(17). 3 hack saw blades, 8 inches, for the above.

(18). 1 Iron ladle for pouring sealing compound.

(19). 1 pair blue glasses, for use when operating burning
outfit. : .
(20). 1 soft rubber bulb syringe, for flushing and equalizing
electrolyte.

(21). 1 steel file brush for cleaning lead parts and file.

(22). 1 burning rack with extra guides, for holding plates and
connecting straps in place while burning. .

(23). 1 hydrometer for mixing electrolyte.

(24). 1 thermometer to determine the temperature of the cell.

{
{
|

THE WORKSIIOP. GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS — 137

- (25). 1 lead burning outfit.

Prices on above repair kit in box, including burning rack with
one spacing guide, but not including lead burning outfit, $17.85
fF. o. b. Depew, New York. Price in force November, 1917.

The Willard Storage Battery Company of Cleveland, Ohio, rec-
ommends the following tools and equipment:

(1). 1 lead burning outfit.

(2). Carboy of Sulphuric Acid for generating gas for lead
burning outfit, and for making electrolyte.

(3). Granulated Zine for making Hydrogen Gas for lead burn-
ing outfit.

(4). Burning rack for holding connecting strap and plates
while burning.

(5). 2 pairs Gas pliers for removing top connectors, taking
out elements, etc.

(6). Pair of flat nose pliers for removing jars and separators.

(7). A plumber’s or tinner’s triangular scraper for scraping
posts, lugs on plates, ete.

(8). A putty knife for removing the sealing compound from
between the top and inside covers; also the excess on top, around
outside and between covers.

(9). An 8-inch screw driver for removing compound, or a
14-inch wood chisel.

(10). A ten-quart iron kettle for melting sealing compound.

(11). A long handled ladle with extra large spout for pouring
sealing compound.

(12). Single burner gas stove for heating sealing compound.

(13). A porcelain pitcher for handling and pouring sulphuric
acid and electrolyte.

-(14). A 10-Ib. bundle of lead and antimony burning bars for
burning plates to connecting straps.

(15). A 10-Ib. bundle of pure lead burning bars for burning in
top connectors.

(16). Brace and 34-inch drill for drilling out top connectors
and terminal posts.

(17). Hydrometer Syringe for testing specific gravity of solu-
tion in battery cells.

(18). Lead funnel for filling batteries.

138 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

(19). Aluminum nipple for holding tapered connectors while
burning in cable. This is to prevent cable from becoming too
hot. One end is tapered to fit positive, and one to fit negative
terminal.

(20). Gas still for distilling water for refilling batteries and
making electrolyte.

(21). Wire brush for cleaning off top of connectors after they
are burned in. |
- (22). Wood form with holes to fit over posts while pressing
down the top covers with a heavy weight.

- (28). Sealing Compound.

(24). Dairy thermometer for measuring temperature of elec-
trolyte.

(25). Hand punch for punching out connector straps where
plate lugs have been broken off.

(26). Iron nipple made from a piece of gas pipe 1 inch long,
reamed out with a tapered reamer so that large end fits over top
of post which has been drilled off.

(27). Lead lined wooden tank for storing wood separators.
Should also have a second tank for mixing electrolyte.

(28). Lead cup for soldering acid. (A glass bottle or jar will
serve the purpose equally well, although more easily broken.)

In addition to these tools and equipment recommended by the
above manufacturers, the following will be found very useful:

(1). Gasoline torch.

'*(2). Two-way burner if natural or ordinary ituminating gas
is used for lead burning.

(3). Screw drivers:

Two with 10-inch blades.
One with 8-inch blade ground rather narrow.
One with small 6-inch blade.

(4). Several wood chisels, 14 to %4-inch wide.

- (5). Pieee of 1-inch angle iron about 8 inches long to place
on top edge of battery when prying off the covers with screw
drivers.

(6). Several old stew pans to be used for boiling connectors in
soda water to remove acid. :

(7). Coffee pot for heating and pouring compound.

THE WORKSHOP. GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 139

(8). A number of pieces of wood %-inch thick, 144 inches wide,
nd just long.enough to fit between the handles of the various
ized batteries.

(9). Metal stamps for stamping date, repairman’s initials, and
‘+7? and ‘‘—” or ‘‘P”’ and ‘‘N”’ on top connectors.

- (10). Cans of asphaltum paint for painting battery boxes,
vork bench, ete.

-(11). Plate press for straightening buckled plates, and for
‘oreing bulged active material back into the grids. (See page 142.)

(12). Steam boiler and steaming box for softening sealing
sompound preparatory to opening battery. (See page 140.)
>> (18). Molds for making burning lead. (See page 146.)

Fig. 75. Handy Boxes for Keeping Covers, Plugs, Connectors, Ete. The Smaller
Boxes are Horseshoe Plug Tobacco Boxes

(14). Battery turntable, to be used when painting battery,
burning on the top connectors, pouring compound, ete. (See
page 144.)

(15). Two pairs bent nose pliers.

(16). A good pocket knife.

(17). Lead pencil, and chalk for marking batteries.

(18). Monkey wrench.

(19). Clean Rags.

(20). For convenience in keeping track of tops, stoppers, wells,
connecting and terminals, you should procure a number of shallow
boxes, as shown in figure 75. A card holder should be placed
on one end. The name of owner of battery, also diagram of
connections of batery and date letter or number are to be put on
the ecard. With this card in holder, no mistakes are likely to
occur. These boxes should be 12 inches long, 8 inches wide, and

140 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

4 inches deep. Gather up the long lead drillings and put in a box!
procured for this purpose, about 9 inches by 14 inches by 6 inches
in size. Figure 75 shows both kinds of boxes. The boxes shown
at the left may be used if you can get them, and card holder put
on one end. The box shown at the right is for the lead scraps. li
you have old battery cases the bottom portions of which ara
sound, these may be cut down and used for this purpose..

(21). The large Exide vehicle hydrometer, type V-2A, is a
most excellent one for general use: It has a round bulb, straight
barrel, with projections on the enlarged portion of the float which
make the latter keep an upright position when taking readings
of specific gravity. This eliminates the annoying sticking of the
float to the sides of the barrel. This hydrometer may be obtained
from the Electric Storage Battery Co.

The Battery Steamer.

The Battery Steamer is an apparatus for softening the sealing
compound on starting and lighting batteries, by means of steam,
so that the battery-may be opened easily and quickly, and with-
out the use of a gas flame or blow torch. It consists of only three
parts, as shown in Figure 76:

1. The Steam Generator.

2. The Steaming Box.

3. The Water Supply Tank. .

When a battery is to be opened, the connectors are first re-
moved and the battery then placed in the Steaming Box and
steam passed into the box for about half an hour. This makes
the sealing compound so soft that it can be removed readily with
the point of a screw driver, the entive operation of opening
the battery being performed within five minutes after the bat-
tery is removed from the steaming box.

The Steam Generator, or Boiler, is made of heavy, galvanized
iron, and furnishes the steam. Water enters the generator
through the cover which is connected to the Water Supply tank
by a rubber hose. The amount of water in the generator is al-
ways the same, and is regulated by the motion of a float. When
the water reaches a height of about three inches, the float rises and

THE WORKSHOP. GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 141

closes the valve through which the water enters. The generator
is set on a gas, oil, or gasoline stove, and because of the small
amount of water in it, steam is produced very quickly. As the
water boils away, the float lowers, opens the valve, and allows
more water to enter. Thus the level of the water is maintained
constant as long as the supply in the tank lasts, and a continuous
supply of steam is available in several minutes after the heat is
applied to the bottom of the generator. For the average repair

Fig. 76. Battery Steamer

shop, the supply tank need not be filled but once a day, and the
entire apparatus requires absolutely no attention after the stove
is once lighted.

The supply tank is also made of galvanized iron, and is con-
nected to the generator by means of a small hose: It is placed
a foot or two higher than the generator so that the water will
flow into the latter by gravity. The steaming box is a stout
wooden box, and is steam tight throughout. Steam is introduced

142 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

through a connection in the cover by a steam hose which le
to the generator. The box is made acid proof both inside an
outside, so that it is not damaged if acid should be spilled on it
accidentally, When the apparatus is assembled, the box is
placed on the floor, or raised several inches above the floor. The
batteries are placed in the box, the lid put on, and the repairman
then does some other work for a half hour or so. At the end of
this time the battery is lifted out, and the softened compound
removed with the point of a screw driver. If it is desired to
remove jars from an ‘old case, the top, plates, and acid are re-
moved, the jars washed out with a stream of water, and the box
then placed in the steaming box for fifteen minutes. The jar
can then be lifted out easily with two pairs of pliers.

To remove one jar, insert the end of the hose directly in the
jar, and pack old rags or paper. around the hose to hold the heat,
or cut a board to fit the top of the jar, and drill a hole in it for
the hose. |

If there are any old covers, jars or battery boxes which have
compound sticking to them, these may also be placed in the
steaming box and the compound then removed easily with a
putty knife. A further advantage of this apparatus ‘is that the
steaming loosens all dirt which may be on the battery box, so
that it may be wiped off and make the battery look like new, if
the wood is in good condition.

The Battery Plate Press.

Every battery repair shop must have some means of pressing |
plates, especially the negative plates. In ‘‘pressing’’ plates, tran-—
site boards of the proper thickness are placed in each space be- |
tween successive plates, with two boards on the outside of the |
end plates. The group of plates is then put under pressure,
either to straighten the plates, or to force the active materials |
back into the grid, flush with the surfaces of the grids. A large
majority of negative plates require such pressing, as the most |
common fault with negative plates is the bulging out of the
aetive material, thus causing a poor contact with the grids
and consequently resulting in a loss of battery capacity.

THE WORKSHOP. GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 143

Never put negative plates into service if the active material is
bulged. Such plates will never give good service, and will cause
the battery to be sluggish. Always press the active materials
of such plates back into place. This will give the battery its
approximate normal capacity, and will lengthen its life.

Fig. 77. Battery Plate Press

Many garagemen press battery plates in an ordinary bench
vise. This is hard on the vise, as acid drops from the plates on
the iron parts of the vise, which in time become badly corroded.
and rusted. Such a vise is weak, breaks easily, and grows very

144 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

stiff and hard to operate. The vise is therefore not well suited
for this work because it is made of metal.

The Battery Plate Press, figure 77, is especially designed for
pressing battery plates, and is so constructed that there is no
metallic part which can be reached by. acid dripping from the
plates. A trough is so arranged that the acid which is squeezed
from the plates is carried off into a drain, and there is conse-
quently no rotting of the floor beneath the press by dripping
acid, and no wet, acid covered floor to ruin your shoes and
clothes.

A further advantage of the Battery Plate Press is that there
are no iron parts near the plates from which bits of iron may
fall on the plates. Iron is one of the greatest enemies of storage
battery plates, as it ruins them in a short time. Figure 121 shows
plates which have been disintegrated by. impurities, probably
iron, since iron is removed only with the greatest difficulty after
it once comes in contact with a plate. Figure 124 shows negatives
which need pressing. |

Three groups of plates may be pressed at once in the Battery
Plate Press, thus resulting in a considerable saving of time.
Figure 77.shows clearly the construction of this press.

The Battery Turntable.

Every repairman knows that the most disagreeable feature
of a battery is its weight. No one moves a battery about unneces-
sarily, especially when it is on the work bench. In cleaning, :
painting and repairing the case, however, it is. necessary to get
at all sides of the battery, and the battery must be turned around.

To eliminate the back-breaking lifting of the heavy battery,
every repairman should have a battery turntable, as shown in
figure 78. The turntable is made of two pieces of well seasoned
hardwood, ten inches long, eight inches wide, and two inches
thick. The illustrations shows the cast iron fittings which form
the pivot bearing. Figure 79 shows how the battery is placed
on the turntable. Thé battery can be turned around easily with
one hand while cleaning, painting, or repairing the case. The |
turntable is not fastened to the work bench, and may be taken
to the battery instead of bringing the battery to it. |

THE WORKSHOP. GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 145

Fig. 78. Battery Turntable

Fig. 79. Battery on Turntable

146 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

Every shop should have several of these convenient, time and
labor saving turntables.

The Burning Lead Mold.

In every shop there is an accumulation of scrap lead: from most
drillings, old connecting straps, old plate straps, and old plates.
These should be kept in a special box provided for that purpose,
and when a sufficient amount has accumulated, the lead should
be melted and run off into molds for making burning lead.

The Burning Lead Mold is designed to be used for this purpose.
As shown in figure 80, the mold consists of .a sheet iron form
which has been pressed into six troughs or grooves into which the

Fig. 80. Burning Lead Molds, Showing Lead Made in Them.

melted lead is poured. This sheet iron form is conveniently
mounted on a block of wood which has a handle at one end, mak-
ing it possible to hold the mold while hot without danger of
being burned. A sheet of asbestos separates the iron form from the

wood, thus protecting the wood from the heat of the melted |

lead. A hole is drilled in the end of the handle to permit the
mold being hung on a nail when not in use. The grooves in the
iron form will produce bars of burning lead 15 inches-long, 5-16
inch thick, 34 inch wide at the top, and 44 inch wide at the
bottom.

The advantage of this type of Burning Lead Mold over a
east iron mold is obvious. The form being made of sheet iron,

heats up very quickly, and absorbs only a very small amount of |

heat from the melted lead. The cast-iron mold, on the other
hand, takes so much heat from the melted lead that the latter

THE WORKSHOP. GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 147

cools quickly and is hard to pour. Furthermore, this Burning
Lead Mold is very light and convenient to handle, whereas the
cast-iron mold is heavy and inconvenient.

In melting lead scrap, add a pinch of powdered sulphur and
rosin to the melted lead to purify it. Stir the lead thoroughly,
' and skim off the surface dirt before pouring in the mold. Be
careful not’ to heat the lead too hot after.it has melted. If you
add from 2 to 4 per cent antimony to the melted lead, the finished
strips will melt more easily, and simplify the burning-in process.

Tagging Batteries.

Every battery concern has its system of marking and tagging
batteries, usually a ecard system or books for making records of
the work. Some of these systems are complicated and confusing.
Make your system as simple as possible, but have it complete.
Then stick to it, and keep it in an orderly, businesslike way.
There are a few essential items that must be recorded correctly,
or your whole system will be confusing and worthless. When.
a battery comes in, and before the driver or owner leaves, be sure
that you have recorded the following information:

1. The owner’s name, address, and telephone number if he
has one.

‘2. What is to be done with the battery—charged, repaired, or
rebuilt. |

3. What the trouble with the battery is (dead cell, box eaten
by acid, cracked jar, loose top connectors, broken sealing com-
pound, etc.), and what caused it (trouble in starting, lighting
or charging circuits; neglect on part of owner; driver left switch
on, ete. See BATTERY TROUBLE CHARTS).

Fill out all these items on the tag, and attach the tag to the
handle near the negative battery terminal. Then record the
job in a book kept for that purpose, or save the tag as a record.
A good plan is also to mark with chalk on the battery box what
the trouble is and what is to be done, such as, 1.D.C. for ‘‘one
dead cell,’’ R.S. for ‘‘reseal,’’ R.B. for ‘‘rebuilt,’’ ete.

You are now ready to make repairs, charge the battery or
open and rebuild it, as the case may be.

148 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

Figure 81 shows the front and back side of a charging or
repair tag. Figure 82 shows a set of pigeon holes for tags alpha-
betically arranged. The top row is for charging or repair tags
for owners whose names begin with A to G. The next row is for
rent tags for owners whose names begin with Ato G. The third
row is for charging or repair tags for owners whose names begin
with II to N. The fourth row is for rent tags for owners whose

The Auto Battery Specialists.

CHARGED
Any PAIRED
Battery SEALED

UILT

Itemized Cost

Recharjin§ «--..-1----00Ple
Electrolyte
Separators

Compound

Fig. 81. Two Sides of Repair Tag

names begin with H to N. The other rows are similarly arranged
In pairs, one of a pair for charging or repair tags, and the other
for rent tags. Unused tags should be kept on hooks near the
pigeon holes, as shown in figure 82. The top edge of the rows
for the rent tags should be painted the same color as the rent
tags. You will notice that one side of the tag, figure 81, per-
mits you to keep a correct account of material used, trouble
with battery and what to do with it, and has a space for a bat-
tery diagram, so that you can place position of terminals and

THE WORKSHOP. GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 149

Fig. 82. Pigeon Holes for Tags

date mark on it. A sample drawing is shown on the tag. This
- tag is perforated across the center. The upper part is tied to
the handle near the negative terminal, and the lower port is kept

The AutoBattery Specalists

7068 Phone
ckeon St
Tope

Fig. 83. Rent Tag

in the proper compartment of the set of
pigeon holes shown in figure 82.

Your rent tags should be green, red,
blue, or some color different from the

-charging tag, figure 83. A good way to

keep aluminum or lead rent tags is on
10 hooks. Tags 1, 11, 21, 31, etc., should
go on hook No. 1; 2, 12, 22, 32, ete. on
hook No. 2; 3, 13, 23, 33, ete., on hook
No. 3. The last figure of a number goes
on the corresponding hook number. If
you use aluminum or lead tags, you are
almost compelled to have a registering
book to keep track of the numbers, un-
less you have them in pairs, two of a
kind, and hang. on racks as above.
Another plan is to have one set of num-
bered aluminum or lead tags, and
attach atag on each battery. Then

number the paper tags shown in figures 81 and 83, and put
these in the pigeon holes shown in figure 82.

150 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY
Precautions to be Taken by the Repairman.

(From bulletin of the Associated Edison Illuminating Companies.)

1. Do not work on an empty stomach—you can then absorb
lead easily.

2. Keep your fingers out of your mouth when at work.

3. Keep your finger nails short and clean.

4. Do not chew tobacco while at work. In handling tobacco,
the lead oxides are carried to your mouth. Chewing tobacco
does not prevent you from swallowing lead.

Do. When you leave the shop at night, and before eating, wash
your face, hands, and arms with soap, and clean your nose,
mouth, and finger nails.

6. Do not eat in the repair shop.

7. Drink plenty of good milk. It prevents lead poisoning.

8. Use Epsom Salts when constipated. This is very important.

9. Bathe frequently to prevent lead poisoning.

10. Leave your working clothes in the shop.

11. It is better not to wear a beard or mustache. Keep your
hair covered with a cap.

12. Before sweeping the shop, dampen the floor to keep down
the dust.

13. Do not drink beer or whiskey, or any other alcoholic liquors.
These weaken your ‘system and make you more susceptible
to lead poisoning.

14. In handling lead, wear gloves as much as possible, and
wash and dry the gloves every day that you wear them.

‘15. Wear goggles to keep lead and acid out of your eyes.

16. When melting lead in a hydrogen flame, as in burning on
the top connectors, the fumes given off may be blown away by a
stream of air. The air supply to the flame may be tapped for this
purpose. |

17. The symptoms of lead poisoning are: gums darken or be-
come blue, indigestion, colic, constipation, loss of appetite, mus-
cular pains. In the later stages there is muscular weakness and
paralysis. The hands become limp and useless.

18. Wear rubber shoes or boots. Leather shoes should be

THE WORKSHOP. GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 151

painted with a hot mixture of equal parts of paraffine and bees-
wax. .

19. Wear woolen clothes if possible. Cotton clothing should
be dipped in a strong solution of washing soda, and dried. Wear
a flannel apron covered with sacking.

20. Keep a bottle of strong ammonia handy. If you should

spill acid on your clothes, apply some of the ammonia immediately
to neutralize the acid, which will otherwise burn a hole in your
clothes.
* 21, Keep a stone, earthenware, or porcelain jar filled with a
solution of washing soda or bicarbonate of soda. Rinse your
hands in this solution occasionally to prevent the acid from irri-
tating them.

22. If you should splash acid in your eye, wash it out imme
diately with warm water, and drop olive oil on the eye. If you
have no olive oil at hand, do not wait to get some, but use any
lubricating oil, or vaseline.

Lead Burning.
‘‘Lead Burning,” so called, refers to the melting together of

plates and straps, or posts and top connectors and terminals.
There are three general methods used:

Fig. 84. Carbon Lead Burning Outfit

1. Soldering Irons. These are inconvenient, and should not
be used unless a gas outfit is not available. A description of this
method is given later, beginning on page 244.

152 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

2. The Electric Arc. This is a very simple method, and re-
quires only a spare 6 volt battery, a 4% inch carbon rod, carbon
holder, cable, and clamp for attaching to battery. This outfit 1s
shown in Figure 84. It may be bought from the Electric Storage
Battery Co., of Philadelphia.

In using this outfit, one terminal of an extra 6 volt battery 1s
connected by a piece of cable with the connectors to be burned. ©
The contact between cable and connector should be clean and ©
tight. The cable which is attached to the carbon rod is then con-
nected to the other terminal of the extra battery, if the battery
is not fully charged, or to the connector on the next cell if the
battery is fully charged. The number of cells used should be
such that the carbon is heated to at least a bright cherry red
color when ‘it is touching the joint which is to be burned together.

Sharpen the carbon to a pencil point, and adjust its position so
that it projects from the holder about one inch. Occasionally
plunge the holder and hot carbon in a pail of water to prevent
carbon from overheating. After a short time, a scale will form
on the surface of the carbon, and this should be scraped off with
a knife or file..

In burning in a connector, first melt the lead of the post and
connector before adding the burning lead. Keep the carbon
point moving over all parts to be joined, in order to insure a
perfectly welded joint. The directions beginning page 239 for
lead burning with the hydrogen flame may also be used for the
carbon.

3. Gas flame. A.number of outfits are used. These are
described below: |

(a) Oxygen. and Hydrogen gases under pressure in separate
tanks. These gases are sent through a mixing valve, where the
proper proportions of the two gases are obtained. This is prob-
ably the most satisfactory and convenient of all methods, but it
is not always possible to obtain the gas. The simplicity of this
set is shown in Figure 85.

(b) Hydrogen and air under pressure in separate tanks. This
set is fully as simple as the Oxygen-Hydrogen, is cheaper, and
is more easily obtained than the Oxygen-Hydrogen.

THE WORKSHOP. GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 153

Fig. 85. Hydrogen-Oxygen Lead Burning Outfit. A and B are Regulating Valves, C
is the Safety Flash Back Tank, D is the Mixing Valve. E is the Burning Tip

154 THE AUPOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

(c) The Prestolite Company of Indianapolis sells a lead burn-
ing outfit which uses Prestolite gas and oxygen under pressure.

(d) The Electric Storage Battery Company of Philadelphia
sells a Hydrogen-Air set which includes a gas generator. The
parts of the outfit are as follows:

1 Gas generator.

1 Wash ‘bottle.

1 Branch pipe.

2 Rubber stoppers.

1 Air pump and air tank combined.

1 Finger pipe, and set of tips.

1 50-ft length of 5-16 inch rubber tubing.
1 2-ft. length of 34 inch rubber tubing.
1 Triangular scraper.

) Finger Pee

Cet

Relief Velve i Ww
* a ‘g ~ “4

Fig. 86. Hydrogen Generating Outfit

Three sizes, F, E, and D, are made. The materials used for
generating the gas are Granulated Zine, Water, and Sulphurie
acid. The arrangement of parts is shown in Figure 86.

(e) Figure 87 shows a similar gas generating and lead burning |
set.

(£) Ordinary illuminating gas (coal gas) may be used. A

THE WORKSHOP. GENERAL INSPRUCTIONS 155

Fig. 87

Fig. 88. Mlumtnating Gas Valve and Burning Tip

156 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

special tip and mixing valve are necessary. The burner and valv
are shown in Figure 88. This set may be bought from the Electric
Storage Battery Co. Enough 5-16 inch rubber tubing should b
provided to make the connections. The hose should be fastened
with wire or clamps to the nipples to prevent leaks.

The air should have a pressure of from 5 to 10 pounds, depend-
ing on the length of hose, and the size of flame desired. In using
air from a tire air compressor, a reducing valve is necessary for
reducing the pressure. Referring to Figure 88, connect the air
hose at A, the gas hose at B, and the hose leading to the burn-
ing tip at C and D. This hose should not be more than five or
six feet long. 2

In using, close the air valve A, and turn the gas valve B, on
full. Light the gas at the burning tip, and then turn on the air.
The air pressure should not be high enough to blow out the flame.

When the gas is turned on full, the flame will look ragged, and
will ‘‘show a waist,’’ or become narrow about 14 inch from the
burning tip, and will then spread out. Do not use such a flame
for burning. |

Turn the gas off slowly until the outer portion of the flame at
the waist breaks and spreads, with an inner tongue. of flame
issuing through the outer ring. The flame will now have a green-
ish color, and is suitable for burning.

If the gas is turned off further, or too much air is turned on,
the flame will become blue and then invisible. It is not suitable
for burning.

When the flame is properly adjusted, the hottest part is just
beyond the end of the inner point. The burning tip should not be
held too close to the work when burning, as the flame becomes
cooler near the burning tip.

The burning tip has a sleeve and lock nut. The position of
the sleeve should be adjusted so as to give the best flame.

(¢) A tank of illuminating gas, either natural or manufactured,
and a tank of oxygen may also be used. This is a simple method.
Full information may be obtained from the Electric Storage Bat-
‘tery Co. of Philadelphia, Pa.

THE WORKSHOP. GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 157

‘When tank gas or air is used, an automatic pressure valve must
be inserted in each line so as to regulate the pressure at any
point. Tank hydrogen must have, in addition, a safety flash back
water tank inserted in the line, as shown in Figure 85.

Saving the Sediment.

Many batterymen throw away the sediment which they wash
from battery jars. This sediment is often called ‘‘lead mud,’’
and should be saved and sold to junkmen. Figure 89 shows a

SETTLING "TANK TO SAVE
SEDIMENT FROM JARS

LEA!
LINE JEL

SEWER
Fig. 89

' scheme for collecting the sediment. Run the drain pipe from the
sink at which the jars are washed out to a lead lined box as shown.
The water and sediment enter at A. The sediment settles to the
bottom of the box, while the water escapes to the sewer at B.
The lead mud may be cleaned out periodically.

The lead lined box is best to use, but is somewhat expensive.
Tf the inside of the box is given two coats of very hot asphaltum
paint, it will be fairly well protected from the action of acid.

158 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

The box may be placed wherever convenient. One batteryman
uses an old enameled bathtub as a settling tank.
Mixing Electrolyte.

The simplest scheme for handling electrolyte is to have only
the 10-gallon carboys of 1.400 specific gravity acid, and the bottles
of distilled water on hand, and mixing the electrolyte for each

A CHEAP METHOD OF DRAWING ©
ACID FROM CAR BOY

V2 ROUND ROCK-
ERS-I4 THICK

Fig. 90

particular battery. Pour some water into an earthenware or
porcelain pitcher or jar, and then add the acid very slowly until
the desired specific gravity is obtained. Never add water to
acid, as an explosion might result which would injure you. Stir
the mixture thoroughly as you add the acid.

Figures 90, 91 and 92 show three methods of handling acid
or distilled water. Figure 90 shows the simplest method. Cut
two half round pieces: of wood, using a radius which is half the

height of the wooden case in which the bottle is placed. Screw

THE WORKSHOP. GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 159

these on the side of the case. These will act as rockers for tipping
the bottle when emptying.
Figure 91 shows a simple siphon ar-
rangement. A is the container, B a rub-
. ber stopper, C and D glass or lead tubes,
E a rubber tube having a pinch clamp at
the lower end. To use, the stopper and
tubes are inserted in the bottle, and air -
blown in at C while the pinch clamp is
open, until the tube E is full. The pinch
clamp is then released. Whenever the
_ liquid is to be drawn from the bottle,
the pinch clamp is pressed, so as to re-
» lease the pressure on the tube. The
hquid will flow automatically down the
tube E as long as the clamp is open. To
stop the flow release the clamp.

The clamp may be made of flat or
round spring brass or bronze. This is
RD SO CR ING bent round at (a). At (c) an opening

is made through which the part (b) is

bent. The clamp is operated by pressing
at (d) and (e). The rubber tube is passed through the opening
between (b) and (c). |

Figure 92 shows a similar arrangement, except that an air foot
pump is used to force out the liquid. To operate, the finger is
placed over the opening at D and the pressure is applied. The
liquid will flow out as long as the pressure is applied and the
finger held at D. To stop the flow, the finger is lifted, thus re-
leasing the pressure. |

The following table shows the number of parts of distilled
water to one part of 1.400 specific gravity electrolyte to pre-
pare electrolyte of various specific gravities. The specific gravity
of the mixture must be taken when the temperature of the mix-
ture is 70° F. If its temperature varies.more than 5 degrees
above or below 70° F, make the corrections described on page 85
to find what the specific gravity would be if the temperature were
70° FF.

Fig. 91

160 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY
BY WEIGHT.

For 1.300 specific gravity use 5 ounces of distilled water for each
pound of 1.400 electrolyte.

For 1.280 specific gravity use 614 ounces of distilled water for
each pound of 1.400 electrolyte.

COMPRESSED AIR SYPHON PUMP
FOR EMPTYING ELECTROLYTE CARBOYS

Fig. 92

For 1.275 specific gravity use 614 ounces distilled water for each
pound of 1.400 electrolyte.

For 1.260 specific gravity use 7/4 ounces distilled water for each ,
pound of 1.400 electrolyte. |

BY VOLUME. |

For 1.300 specifie gravity use 314 pints distilled water for each
gallon of 1.400 electrolyte.

THE WORKSHOP. GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 161

“or 1.280 specific gravity use 414 pints distilled water for each
gallon of 1.400 electrolyte.

“or 1.275 specific gravity use 5 pints distilled water for each
gallon of 1.400 electrolyte.

“or 1.260 specific gravity use 514 pints distilled water for each
gallon of 1.400 electrolyte.

In ease you wish to use other measuring units than those given
n the above table, this table may be written as follows, giving
‘he number of parts distilled water to 10 parts of 1.400 specific
yravity electrolyte:

Specific Gravity Parts by Parts by
Desired Weight Volume
V.B00.. 2. cece eee ees Bivcccccccccccecececs 4l/,
5 || Sr 51,
5 1 bs re 6
5 1 | 47-10 ............08. 6%

The next table gives the number of parts of distilled water to
10 parts of concentrated sulphuric acid (which has a specific
gravity of 1.835) to prepare electrolyte of various specific grav-
ities :

Specifie Gravity Parts by Parts by
Desired Weight Volume
1.400... 0... cece ee eee BY Loc ccc eee eeee 15 8-10
1.300..... ccc cece caeeeeees WWE eee ees ev eee 25
1.280... . 0. ccc eee eee | hs rr a 27
p41 bs 5 28

CHAPTER 15.
ANALYSIS OF THE CONDITION OF THE BATTERY. |
What is the Trouble?

With some batterymen it is a ease of ‘‘blind leading the blind,’’
when a man brings his car to the shop. Generally the car owner
only knows that his lights are dim, or his starting motor will!
not crank the engine; he does not know what is wrong, and usually:
does not care particularly. He wants you to make his lights and
starter work properly, and the sooner you do it, the better sat-
isfied he will be, and the greater the probability of his coming
back to you the next time he has trouble.

‘*What is the Trouble?’’ That is what you must determine at
once, and tell the car owner how soon he may again have his ear.
Ife may have a long tale of woe and may think he knows just
what is wrong and what must be done, and say that he merely
brought the car to you because he lacks the proper tools and
equipment. If you go ahead on the strength of what the car
owner tells you, unless you are well acquainted with him and
know that he has a better knowledge of electricity than you
have and has made a thorough study of his car, you are in the
position of one blind man being led by another. You will have
a vague feeling of uneasiness and dissatisfaction with yourself
which you eannot analyze. You will most likely feel ashamed of
vourself and be very apt to do a very poor job of putting the
ear in good shape. You started by not using your head or doing
your own thinking, and you very likely will not do any thinking
on the whole job. You will feel that the ear owner is your
superior, and that you must do just what he said the ear needed.

Tf vou run your battery repair business on such a basis, you are |
bound to be a flat failure. For the sake of your success, self-
satisfaction and peace of mind, do not let the car owner be the

162

ANALYSIS OF CONDITION OF BATTERY 163

aaster of the situation. You have a head on your shoulders
vhich you should use. You are the expert, and it is up to you
Oo make a quick, accurate analysis of the situation and decide
what the remedy is. You would not think of going to a doctor
when you feel ill and telling him you have such and such a
trouble, that you wanted a certain medicine to cure it, and that
you were merely coming to him because you needed his official
prescription in order to get the medicine at the drug store. If
any doctor allowed you to do this, you would have a feeling of
dissatisfaction with him because he allowed you to make the diag-
nosis when, because of his special training and experience, he
should be able to make it himself, and do it better and more
quickly. You like to have him listen to what you think is wrong
with yourself, but not to be guided entirely by your opinions.
If he does not examine you himself, and ask you questions that
show he is analyzing your condition carefully, you will go away
dissatisfied, and your anxiety about your pains will not be re-
heved. Most likely, you will go to another doctor who will not
let your talk influence him too much in his diagnosis and pre-
Secription.

When a car is brought to your shop, you are the doctor.. Some
part of the mechanism is in trouble, and it is your duty to put
yourself in charge of the situation. Examine and test the battery
earefully. Listen to what the driver or car owner has to say.
It will probably give you a clue to the trouble. Question him
so as to establish certain points in your mind. Then decide for
yourself what must be done, and tell the man who brought the
ear or battery what repairs you consider necessary, regardless
of whether he thinks you are right or not. If he disagrees, explain
to him clearly and courteously what you think must be done,
and if you show that you have been careful in your analysis, he
will think more of you for-insisting on certain repairs.

It is Just as disastrous if you go too far in doing your own
thinking. If you have any hopes of being successful in your busi-
ness, do not assume such air of superiority that says, ‘‘I know it
all,’’ and shows a contempt for the knowledge of the owner or
driver. If you are told that the lights won’t work, turn on the
lighting switch to see if they will. If the driver says that the

164 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

starter won’t crank the engine, try it. Listen attentively and
courteously to what the driver has to say. Disregarding his
story entirely will most likely make him angry, and he may never
return to your shop.

What the owner wants to know is how much the repairs will
cost, and when he can have his car again. The following direc-
tions will enable you to decide what must be done. Estimate
carefully, if possible, what the work will cost. If a considerable
amount of work is required, and you cannot tell how much time
and material will be needed, tell the owner you will let him know
the approximate cost later, when you have gone far enough to be
able to make an estimate.

If the owner cannot leave his car, take off the battery and
put a “‘renter’’ in its place until the repairs are completed.

’ The first thing to do, therefore, when a car comes to your shop
is to greet the driver courteously and ask him what the trouble
seems to be. He certainly has noticed that something is wrong
with the electrical system of his ear, or he would not have brought
the car to you. Generally the driver complains that his lights
burn dimly, or that the motor will not start his engine, or else
turns the engine over very slowly. Dim lights usually come
first, that is, a battery which will not give bright lights will
operate the starter satisfactorily. A drop in battery voltage
which will give dim lights may not cause failure to start. The
immediate trouble which caused the owner to send the car to you
may, of course, be due to one or more conditions which you can
discover by merely making an inspection of the battery, or which
may be more difficult to determine. It is best, therefore, to go at
each car in the same way, making the same tests and inspections,
but always bearing in mind the trouble which the driver has de-
scribed. You will be able to analyze the conditions you find more
clearly. If, for instance, there is starter trouble, and you find
that there is a loose connector between two cells, you will know,
when you find the loose connector, that you have probably dis
covered the cause of the trouble. Do not, however, be satisfied
with merely reburning Phe joints between the connectors and the

posts. Make other tests to determine what the exact condition ©

ANALYSIS OF CONDITION OF BATTERY 165

of the battery is in other respects: One trouble very often leads
to others, and curing the one will not eliminate the others.

If trouble exists and the battery is badly discharged, tell the
owner he has an abnormal condition or trouble some place on
his ear, and that his battery will have to be taken off his car, and
a renter put in its place while his is being charged, repaired or
rebuilt, as the ease may be, and that the trouble or abnormal con-
dition must be removed or his battery will run down again in a
short time. It is your business to get the job; do it in as agree-
able a manner as possible. If you have good reasons to believe
it is some trivial trouble, fix it as quickly as possible in a work-
manlike manner. If it proves to be anything serious that will take
considerable time, make an appointment with the man to have
him leave his car, and when he leaves it, locate the direct cause
of trouble, repair it as quickly as possible, in a conscientious,
workmanlike manner, so that it will stay fixed and give satisfac-
tory service. Your business will grow just in proportion as you
give satisfactory service. Satisfy every customer and give him a
square deal. The public is not slow in locating and patronizing
this kind of repair shop.

You must have'a standard method of procedure. It is the only
way to avoid the haphazard, hit-or-miss habits of an inferior re-—
pairman. Go through the steps described below, and you will
soon have the: business-getting, profit-making habits which you
need in order to be successful. |

The Standard procedure is as follows:

1. Ask the driver or owner why he brought the car to your
shop. Remember what he says when you take the remaining
steps.

». Open the battery box and make a general inspection.

(a) Is the battery covered with dust and dirt? Brush off
the coarser dirt with an old whisk broom. Then take a rag wet
with ammonia or solution of soda and wipe all parts clean.

(b) Are the cables tight? Feel each connection at the pos-
itive and negative terminals. If any age loose, tighten them.
' See that no cable is partly broken through, especially at the end
of the terminal. See that cables are well insulated. |

166 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

one or more are loose, you must take battery from the car and
reburn the connector.

(d) Is there corrosion at the battery terminals? This is indi-
cated by a green deposit, especially at the positive terminal.
Scrape deposit off with a knife, and remove cable if possible.
Clean contact surfaces on cable terminal and post with fine sand-
paper. If corrosion has proceeded so far that you cannot remove
the cable, use cable tongs, bore off the terminal connection, and
soak in boiling soda water for a few minutes. The cable can
then be removed easily, and the connector will be clean.

(e) Are all the connections clean? Remove cables and if
there is any dirt on contact surfaces, soak in boiling soda water
or clean with knife or fine sandpaper.

(f) Is the battery loose in the box? If so, put in new hold
down bolts. A loose battery will cause broken jars, spilled elec-
trolyte (causing corrosion at terminals, short-circuits, rotted
box, rotted case, low gravity, low liquid in cells), and loose cables.

Always examine closely the battery box on car. See if it is
hung loosely, or not properly braced, or no hold downs attached,
or if loose in the box, or if the terminal cables jump around with
vibration of car. The trouble may be due to any one of the above
causes. Never put a battery on a car without noticing carefully
all the above possible conditions and if any exist call the car
owner’s attention to them and ask him if he wants them fixed;
fix them right and charge him for the time and material used.
Always have a supply of hold down bolts, %4 or 5-16 inch on
hand of two lengths, 11 inches and 121% inches; also have good
heavy spring washers and winged nuts for same.

It is a fact that a battery should be firmly fastened down; do
not overdo it, however, by screwing the hold downs so tight as
to pull off the handles or break the sealing on end of case, but it
must be firmly clamped down, and the box or hanger the battery

is in must be solidly fastened to the car, and have no percepti- |

ble vibration other than the movement of the car. For repairing
handles that have pulled off, see page 225.

(zg) Is any of the sealing compound on top of the cells broken
at the posts, filling vent, or around the edges? See Trouble Chart.
No. 7, page 176. This will cause the battery to be a ‘‘slopper,”’ one

ANALYSIS OF CONDITION OF BATTERY 167

in which electrolyte is thrown out through the cracks in the com-
pound by the jolting of the car on the road. If so, remove bat-
tery from car and open it. See page 187.

(h) Are the ends of battery bulged out? If so, the battery
has been frozen. See Trouble Chart No. 11, page 178. Remove
battery from car and open it. See page 187.

(i) Is the battery case, or metal box, rotted and eaten through?
See Trouble Chart No. 8, page 177. If condition of box is very bad,
remove battery from car and open it. See page 187.

3. Read the date marks on the battery. If you cannot find
them, ask the driver how long the battery has been on the ear.
If he says it has been in use for fifteen months or more, the bat-
tery is probably worn out, and needs new plates. Open the bat-
tery. See page 187. If battery has been in use only a short time,
or less than a year, try to find out if battery was new when in-
stalled on car. It may have been a second hand battery in the
first place, and may now be old enough to need new plates. _

If battery looks new, proceed with remainder examination.

4. Remove filling vents and inspect level of electrolyte. If
electrolyte is below tops of plates in any eell, fill with distilled
water. See Trouble Chart No. 3, page 174. If it requires a con-
siderable amount of water to fill any cell, that cell has been in-
jured in proportion to the length of time the electrolyte has
been below the tops of the plates.

Ask the driver when water was last added. If more than a
month has since passed, remove battery from car and give
charge for sulphated battery. See page 184. If the electrolyte
level sinks below tops of plates soon after filling with water, the
jar is cracked. In this case remove battery from car and open
it. See page 187.

If it is necessary to add only a normal amount of water, bat-
tery may be charged on car by running engine for several hours,
or battery may be charged in shop at the charging bench.

5. Turn on the lighting switch or switches. Measure the
voltage of each cell. Each cell should have a voltage of 2 or
more. If any cell shows no voltage, that cell is ‘‘dead.’’ Re-
move battery from car and open it. See page 187. See also
Trouble Chart No. 1, page 172, and No. 12, page 178. If all cells

168 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

show from 1.8 to 2 volts, remove battery from car and give it
a normal charge. See page 183. |

6. Close the starting switch, and if battery will not crank
motor while switch is closed, measure the voltage of the whole
battery. If this drops to a very low value, say 1 volt per cell, |
make sure that there is no trouble outside of the battery. If
there is none, remove battery from car and charge it. See page
183. Instead of measuring the voltage you may turn on the lamps
before closing the starting switch. If the lights then become very
dim when the switch is closed remove the battery and put it on
charge, unless it is in a bad condition. It should then be opened. |

7. Measure the specific gravity of each cell. Make a record
of the readings for use later. See page 79, and Trouble Charts |
1 and 2, pages 172 and 174. If you have added water to bring the —
level of the electrolyte above the plate tops, do not measure the >
specific gravity unless you have, in the meantime, run the
engine till the cells have been gassing freely. The meaning of |
the various values of specific gravity are:

1.300 to 1.250—Fully charged.

1.250 to 1.200—More than half charged.

1.200 to 1.150—Less than half charged.
—Run engine several hours to charge

1.150 or less—Completely discharged.
—Remove battery from car. See page 187.

Note:—It sometimes happens that gravity readings of 1.200
or over are obtained, and the voltage is high, and yet the lights
are dim and the starter will not crank the engine. This shows
that acid has been added instead of water. Remove battery
from car and open it, as battery has probably been damaged
internally. See page 187. |

8. There may be other symptoms of trouble such es:— 7

(a) Battery overheats while car is running. See Trouble
Chart No. 4, page 175. Electrolyte is below surface of plates,
or generator is delivering too much charging current. Battery |
may also be located near a hot place such as the exhaust pipe. {
Look for low electrolyte (See 4, above) ; measure charging current
with ammeter; if battery is near a hot place, change its location.

ANALYSIS OF CONDITION OF BATTERY 169

(b) Battery runs down quickly on car after being charged.
Generator not delivering charging current, or too small a current.
There may be short circuits or grounds in wiring which cause a
continuous discharge. Use the AMBU Trouble Shooter. See
Trouble Chart No. 10, page 177.

(c) Battery will not take a charge. See Trouble Chart No. 6,
page 176, and No. 5, page 176. Look for loose connections. If
none are found, remove battery from car and open it. See page 187.

(d) Specific gravity low even though generator is delivering
the proper charge. May not be enough acid in the electrolyte.
If specific gravity will not rise after long continued charge, re-
move water and add 1.400 specific gravity electrolyte, so as to
bring specific gravity of each cell up to 1.275-1.300.

(e) Lights on one side of car burn dim, and on other bright.
This occurs when a three wire lighting system is used with a 12
volt battery. It indicates that one side of the battery is carry-
ing a heavier load than the other. Change wiring so that same
current is drawn from each:half of battery. Remove battery from
car and give it a normal charge. See page 183.

(f) Battery run down after storage. Remove and give bat-
tery a long charge, as for sulphated battery. See page 184. It
may be impossible to put any life into the battery, on account of
badly sulphated or disintegrated plates. -

9. In order to do the best work and, build up a reputation for
thoroughness, test the lighting system and the generator, with all
the wiring. Your battery trouble may be due to some fault in other
parts of the starting and lighting system, and unless you find this
trouble, it is of little use to put the battery in shape, as the same
trouble will soon return. For such testing you should have an
‘‘AMBU’’ Trouble Shooter, which quickly and accurately locates
troubles in the starting and lighting system of all American made
cars.

10. The action of the cutout relay in opening or closing the
charging circuit must be correct. This should always be checked
according to the directions given below:

The cutout should close the circuit between the battery and
dynamo as soon as the voltage of the dynamo is sufficiently above
that of the battery to cause a charging current to flow from the

170 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

dynamo to the battery. The action of the cutout may be tested
as follows:

First turn off all the lamps; make sure that the specific gravity
of each cell of the battery is at least 1.250 and that the dynamo 1s
giving its normal output. If the battery is run down, it must be
charged, or a “‘renter’’ put in its place. That means that an
Ambu test for Engine Running, Lamps Off, should give an ‘‘N’’
reading. Have the Ambu ammeter attached at the battery as
for the regular Ambu tests. With the engine running, gradually
close the throttle until the engine runs slow enough to allow the
cutout to remain open. When the cutout is open, the ammeter
pointer will be over the ‘‘O”’ line. Now gradually increase the
engine speed and watch the ammeter pointer. At some speed
between 5 and 15 miles per hour, the pointer will swing to the
right or left of the ‘‘O”’ line, showing that the cutout has closed.

If the pointer first swings to the left of the ‘‘O’’ line and then
with increasing engine speed moves to the right of the ‘‘O”’ line,
the cutout is closing too soon. This condition may be remedied
by increasing the air gap between the movable cutout arm and thie
electromagnet, or by increasing the spring tension. Increasing
the spring tension will also cause the cutout to open at a higher
engine speed than before, and in making this adjustment care
should be taken that the action of the cutout in opening is as
described below.

If the pointer first swings to the right of the ‘‘O’’ line, the
contacts are not closing at too low a speed, but may still be clos-
ing at too high an engine speed. Bring the engine to its lowest
speed and then gradually open the throttle. When the peinter
moves to the right of the ‘‘O”’ line, hold the engine speed con-
stant at that point for an instant. Then with a further increase of
engine speed, the pointer should move farther away from the
‘*O’’ line. Increase the engine speed until the charging curreni
stops rising. Note if this maximum is correct. If not, use the
Ambu trouble shooter. If the pointer moves so as to indicate
the normal charging current as soon as the cutout closes, or if
only two or three amperes more charging current are obtained
with increased engine speed, it indicates that the cutout is clos- |
‘ng at. too high a speed. This condition may be remedied by

ANALYSIS OF CONDITION Of BATTERY 171

either decreasing the air gap or decreasing the spring tension.
In decreasing the spring tension, check the action of the cutout
in opening, as described below, in order that the discharge current
necessary to allow the spring to open the cutout may not be too
great. )

Check the action of the cutout in opening; start with the cutout
closed and then gradually decrease the engine speed. The pointer
will move toward the ‘‘O’’ line and then will move to the left of
this line. The amount of the motion to the left should not exceed
two or three amperes and the pointer should remain on this side
of the line for only a very brief instant and should then return
to the ‘‘O’’ line, showing that the eutout has opened. If the
cutout opens before the pointer passes to the left of the ‘‘O’’ line,
the spring tension should be decreased. If the pointer moves to
the left of the ‘‘O’’ line so as to indicate a discharge current of
more than 4 amperes, or if the pointer remains on the left of
the ‘‘O”’ line for more than an instant, the spring tension should
be increased.

It sometimes happens that a cutout will not open as the engine
is stopped and such a condition should be remedied at once by
making the contact points clean and smooth, and by increasing
the spring tension. When the cutout acts in this way and the
condition is not remedied, the battery will discharge into the
generator until it is run down. Such a condition often exists
without the knowledge of the car owner and is the reason for
much mysterious battery trouble, in which the battery appar-
ently runs down without any cause being discovered. Such con-
ditions are often hard to discover because in connecting a testing
instrument at the battery, the cutout will open as soon as the
battery circuit is broken and no discharge of current will be
indicated on the meter. It is therefore necessary in testing any
car to start the engine and then stop it and notice if any dis-
charge current is shown on the meter, thus indicating that the
eutout has not opened. |

If you have no Ambu Trouble Shooter, use an ammeter which
has the ‘‘O”’ in the center of the scale and which reads to about
2) amperes both ways. This ammeter should be connected in
Series with one cable of the battery. This is done by removing

172 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

one of the main cables from the battery, and connecting this —
cable to one of the terminals on the ammeter. Connect the other
ammeter terminal to the battery post from which the main cable
was removed.

Most cars now use battery ignition systems, and it is necessary
to use dry cells or an extra storage battery to furnish the ignition
current while making the test. If you have Ambu, make the con-
nections which are described in the Ambu Instruction Book, and
then test the cutout as explained above.

BATTERY TROUBLE CHART NO. 1.
LOW GRAVITY OR LOW VOLTAGE.

A. LOOK FOR THE FOLLOWING TROUBLES:

1. Loose or dirty terminals or connectors.

2. Broken terminals or connectors.

3. Loose plugs causing flooding.

4. Corroded terminals caused by acid on top of battery due to
overfilling or flooding.

5. Copper wires attached to battery posts. Remove wires and
attach to battery cables at least one foot from battery terminals.

6. Acid or moisture on top of battery, causing current leakage.

7. Tools or wire causing short circuits.

8. Short circuits or grounds in wiring. Use ‘‘AMBU’’ Trouble
Shooter.

9. Three wire lighting system with unequally divided load,
discharging two halves of battery at different rates. Redistribute
load.

10. Muitiple section battery charged with two or more sections
in parallel. Cable terminals and connections must all be clean
and tight.

11. Check action of cutout relay. See page 169.

12. Polarity of dynamo reversed, or battery connections re-
versed.

13. Excessive lamp current. Use ‘‘AMBU”’ Trouble Shooter. —

14. Dynamo not charging battery. Use ‘‘AMBU’’ Trouble |
Shooter.

ANALYSIS OF CONDITION OF BATTERY 173

15. Dynamo charging battery at too low arate. Use ‘‘AMBU’’
Trouble Shooter.

B, ASK THE DRIVER:
If water has been added once every week.
If distilled water only has been used.
If too much water is added.
If electrolyte has been spilled and replaced by water.
If any alcohol or anti-freeze mixture has been added.

6. If electrolyte is always returned to ccrrect cell after hy-
drometer readings.

1. If impure acid or electrolyte has been used.

8. Has battery been dropped?

9, Has battery been idle, or stored without regular charging
for several months?

10. Has specific gravity been low for a considerable time?
There is, therefore, sulphation present.

11. How old is the battery? If a battery has been used more
than fifteen months, it is best to put in a new one.

i2. Is car used in night time more than the day time? Con-
siderable night driving does not allow battery to remain charged.

13. Is starter used frequently ?

14. Has starter been used frequently, merely to demonstrate it?

15. How fast is ear driven on an average? Speed should be at
least 15 m.p.h. Battery is not charged at low speed.

16. How long do you spin the engine with the starting motor?
Should not exceed one half minute.

17. If it is winter, caution driver to keep battery charged, even _
if battery must occasionally be removed from ear to do so.

gu ye go PO

C. IF BATTERY HAS BEEN REPAIRED:

The trouble may be due to

1. Negative exposed to air.

2. Common wood used in place of separators. :

3. Grooved sides of separators put toward negative plates in-
stead of positive.

4. A separator may have been left out.

d. Positives used that should have been discarded.

1i4 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

6. Bulged negatives used.
7. Poor connections made.

D. BATTERY TROUBLE WHICH MAY EXIST:
. Sulphated Plates.

. Buckled Plates.

. Internal Corrosion.

. Shedding of Active Material.
. Internal Short Circuits.

. Cracked Jars.

. Hardened Negatives.

. Clogged Separators.

. Battery frozen.

10. Negatives reversed.

11. Disintegrated positives.

12. Crystallized positives. : ‘

OoaoN HO OR WG DN eH

BATTERY TROUBLE CHART NO. 2. °
HIGH GRAVITY.

A. PROBABLE CAUSES:
1. Raw acid added instead of water.
2. Electrolyte added instead of water. |
3. Electrolyte replaced in wrong cell after testing specific
gravity. |

B. BATTERY TROUBLES WHICH MAY EXIST:
1. Sulphated Plates.
2. Burned Separators.
3. Internal Corrosion.

BATTERY TROUBLE CHART NO. 3.

LOW LEVEL OF ELECTROLYTE.

A. PROBABLE CAUSES:
1.. Water not added.
2. Electrolyte replaced in wrong cell after testing specific —
gravity. : |

ANALYSIS OF CONDITION OF BATTERY 175

3. Battery dropped.
4, Battery loose in box.
0. Battery located in hot place, such as near the exhaust pipe.

6. Battery overeharged due to long daylight runs, with little
use of lamps.

B. BATTERY TROUBLES WHICH MAY EXIST:
1. Sulphated plates.
2. Cracked Jars.
3. Burned separators.
4. Shedding of active materials.

BATTERY TROUBLE CHART NO. 4.
BATTERY OVERHEATS.

A. PROBABLE CAUSES:
. Battery located in hot place on car.
. Water not added regularly.
. Impure water used.
. Electrolyte dirty.
. Impure acid used.
. Aleohol or Anti-Freeze liquid : added.
. Sulphated battery charged at too high a rate.
. Common wood used for separators.
9. Battery overcharged by long daylight runs.
10. Battery charged at too high a rate due to excessive gen-
erator output.

aon Oo fr & NH Fe

B. BATTERY TROUBLES WHICH MAY EXIST:
1, Sulphated plates.
2. Softened or broken jars.
8. Cracked, burned, or broken separators.
4. Buckled plates.
5. Active material has dropped out.
6. Separators clogged.

176 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY
OTHER TROUBLES.

5. SPECIFIC GRAVITY WILL NOT RISE ON CHARGE.

A. PROBABLE CAUSES:
1. Battery badly sulphated.
2. Not enough acid in electrolyte.
3. Sediment in bottom of jars.

B. REMEDIES: (Numbered to correspond with causes given
above).

1. Long charge at 3 to 5 ampere rate.

2. Charge until specific gravity is constant for several hours.
Then draw off some electrolyte and add 1.400 electrolyte. Charge
again, and repeat until specific gravity is 1.280-1.300.

3. Open Battery. See page 187.

6, BATTERY WILL NOT TAKE CHARGE.

A. PROBABLE CAUSES:
1. Badly sulphated, or crystallized plates.
2. Terminals or top connectors corroded, dirty, or loose.
3. Open circuit inside of battery.

B, REMEDIES: (Numbered to correspond with causes given
above).
1. Open battery. See page 187. |
2. Remove green deposit, tighten and clean terminals, reburn
top connectors.
3. Open battery. See page 187.

7. ELECTROLYTE LEAKING AT TOP.

A. PROBABLE CAUSES:
1. Too much water added.
2. Battery loose in case. .
3. Battery poorly sealed, causing a ‘‘slopper.’’
4. Filling plugs loose.

ANALYSIS OF CONDITION OF BATTERY 177

B. REMEDIES: (Numbered to correspond with causes given
above).
1. Add correct amount of water.
2. Fasten battery in case.
3. Reseal battery. See page 187.
4. Tighten filling plugs.

8. BATTERY BOX ROTTED.

A. PROBABLE CAUSES:
1. All the causes given in preceding chart.
2. Broken jars.
3. Electrolyte spilled in testing specific gravity.

B. REMEDIES: (Numbered to correspond with causes given
above).
1. All the remedies given in preceding chart.
2. New Jars—Open battery. See page 187.

9, CORRODED TERMINALS.

A, PROBABLE CAUSES:
1. All the causes given in No. 7 above.
2. Connecting copper wire directly to battery terminals.
3. Electrolyte spilled in testing specific gravity.

B, REMEDIES: (Numbered to correspond with causes given
above). :
1. All the remedies given in No. 7.
2. Connect wires to battery cables at least one foot from battery.
3. Wipe off electrolyte spilled in testing specific gravity. Re-
move green deposit.

10. BATTERY DISCHARGES RAPIDLY.

A. PROBABLE CAUSES:
1, Short circuits or grounds in wiring. (Battery Idle.)
9. Short circuit in battery. (Battery Idle.)

178 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

3. Battery old, with most of active material dropped from grids,
(Battery in Use.)

B. REMEDIES: (Numbered to correspond with causes given
above).
1. Locate short circuits or grounds in wiring and remove. Use
the *‘ Ambu Trouble Shooter.’’
2. Open battery and clear shorts. See page 187.
3. Open battery and install new plates. See page 187.

11. BATTERY FROZEN.

A. PROBABLE CAUSE:
1, Allowed to stand in discharged condition in cold place.

B, REMEDY:
1. Try charging at 3 ampere rate for a week. Most likely bat-
tery must be opened and new plates and separators put in.

12, LIGHTS DIM.

A. PROBABLE CAUSES:

. Battery partly discharged, due to insufficient charge.

. Dead cell in battery.

. Dirty, corroded, or loose terminals and top connectors.
. Dynamo not delivering sufficient charging current.

. Car used mostly at night with lights burning.

OV He Oo LO

B. REMEDIES: (Numbered to correspond with causes given

above).

1. Remove battery and charge on charge bench.

2. Open battery. See page 187.

3. Clean and tighten terminals. Reburn top connectors.

4. Use ‘‘Ambu Trouble Shooter.”’

5. Change driving conditions, or charge battery about once a |
month while removed from car. |

ANALYSIS OF CONDITION OF BATTERY 179
SUMMARY OF WORK TO BE DONE ON BATTERY.

1. When may a battery be left on the car?

(a) When you find that the specific gravity of all cells is 1.250
or more, the voltage of each cell is at least 2, the voltage does
not drop when the lights are turned on, the starter action is
satisfactory, there are no loose terminals or connectors, the seal-
ing compound is not broken or cracked so as to cause a ‘‘slopper,’’
the electrolyte covers the plates, the box is not rotted by acid, and
there are no broken jars.

(b) Conditions given in (a) will exist only if battery has been
well taken care of, and some trouble has suddenly and recently
arisen, such as caused by a break-in one of the battery cables,
loosening of a cable connection at the battery or in the line to
the starting motor, or in fact, any starter, generator, or lighting
trouble which has not caused a battery to lose more than half
of its charge and has not interfered with the charging circuit or
current. | |

(ec) If removing of corrosion, cleaning or tightening of ter-
minals at battery will make the starting, charging, and lighting
systems operate satisfactorily.

(d) If battery is more than half charged, due to the conditions
given in (b) and (c), and the driver promises to use his starter
and lights sparingly until battery is fully charged.

2. When should a battery be removed from car?

(a) When you find broken sealing compound, causing a
‘“slopper.’’

(b) When you find top connectors and terminals loose, cor-
roded, or poorly burned on.

(d) When you find a cracked jar, indicated by low electrolyte,
or find that electrolyte level falls below the tops of the plates
soon after adding water.

(e) When you find a dead cell, indicated by very low or no
voltage.

(f) When specific gravity of electrolyte is less than 1.250.

180 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

(g) When battery voltage drops to about 1.8 or less per cell
when lamps are turned on. Lamps will then burn dimly.

(h) When you find that electrolyte is below tops of plates, and
it requires considerable water to bring it up to the correct height.

(i) When battery overheats on charge, or discharge, although
battery is not located in hot place, charging rate is not too high,
and lamp and accessories load is normal.

(j) When battery is more than 15 months’ old, and action not
satisfactory.

(k) When battery has low capacity, as shown by rapid loss of
charge after being fully charged.

Fig. 98. A Blacksmith Tried His Hand on This Battery

(1) When a blacksmith or plumber has tried his hand at re-
building the battery, or the car owner has attempted to save
money by doing his own repair work. Such a battery is shown
in Figure 93.

(m) When the ends of the case are bulged out, indicating a
frozen battery.

3. When is it unnecessary to open up a battery?

(a) When the conditions given in paragraphs (a), (b), (f),
(g), (h), and (i), in section 2, above, can be remedied by outside |
repairs, or by charging; (a) and (b) require repairs, and (f), (g),
(h), and (i) require charging. If the charging will not cause the

ANALYSIS OF CONDITION OF BATTERY 181

specific gravity to come up to 1.280-1.300, it will be necessary to
open the battery. See page 187.

4, When must a battery be opened?

(a) When the conditions given in section 2, paragraphs (a),
(b), (£), (g), (h), and (i) cannot be remedied by charging or
repairs that do not require the removal of the sealing compound.

(b) When you find the conditions given in section 2, paragraphs

(c), (d), (e), (3), (k), (1), and (m).

CHAPTER 16.
WORK ON THE BATTERY.
Charging Batteries Before Rebuilding.

Battery charging may in general be divided into two classifica-
tions:

1. Charging while on the ear, by the generator installed on
the car.

2. Charging battery when removed from the ear.

1. With the battery on the car, the driving conditions deter-
mine to a great extent the condition of charge, and the garage-
man should watch them closely. The battery is alternately
charged and discharged. The discharge takes place when the
starter is used, or current is furnished to the lights, horn, igni-
tion, ete.

The battery furnishes these currents whenever the car is not
running, or running at such a low speed that the dynamo does not
charge the battery. Most generators are designed so that their
outputs can be changed in order to keep the battery charged
under the driving conditions of the particular car upon which
the generator is placed. When ears leave the factory, the gen-
erators are set to produce a current which will keep the battery
charged under average driving conditions. This current should
never be changed unless a battery does not receive enough charge
due to unusual driving conditions, or receives too high a charge,
as indicated by high temperatures (above 105°F), or abnormal
gassing.

It is important to check the action of the cutout in closing and
opening the charging circuit. (See page 169.) The cutout should
close as soon as the generator voltage is slightly greater than

182

WORK ON THE BATTERY 183

that of the battery, and should open the circuit as soon as the
generator voltage is slightly less than that of the battery.

The temperature of the battery on the car must be watched
closely. If a thermometer indicates that the temperature of the
electrolyte is above 105°, and the connectors on top of the bat-
tery feel hot, the charging rate of the dynamo must be decreased.
If the charging rate cannot be changed, the lamps should be
burned, day or night, whenever the car is running. This will cut
down the charging current delivered to the battery and prevent
overheating.

If the specific gravity of the electrolyte is always below 1.250,
due to unusual driving conditions, the output of the generator
must be increased so as to keep the battery charged, or the lights
should be used sparingly.

2. With the battery off the car, the charge and discharge can
be regulated by the repairman. There are many things to be
considered in such charging.

(a) If a battery needs a charge on: account of generator not
having a sufficient output, or on account of unusual driving con-
ditions, or neglect, give the battery a charge. Such a charge 18
necessary :

When the lamps burn dimly (with engine not running).

When voltage per cell has fallen below 1.80 (with lamps
burning).

When electrolyte has fallen below the tops of the plates and
battery is not giving satisfactory service. Water should first be
added to bring electrolyte up to the correct height.

Sometimes a battery will be completely discharged, as shown
by dim lights and voltage below 1.8 per cell, but the hy-
drometer reading will be 1.200 or above. This shows that acid
has been added to the discharged battery instead of water. Give
battery a full charge at once, and then reduce specific gravity
to 1.270-1.300 by removing some electrolyte and adding water.
Cells should be gassing while this is done, and the specific gravity
reading should not be taken until an hour after adding water.
The time required to charge such a battery depends upon the
extent to which the battery has been damaged by the acid. If a
considerable amount of acid has been added, the plates may be

184 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

badly sulphated, and require a long charge, or the separators may
be rotted, making it necessary to open the battery. See page 137.
The normal charging current to be used is that stamped on the
nameplate usually found on the battery.

Most manufacturers give a ‘‘starting’’ rate and a ‘‘finishing’’
rate. Charge the battery at the ‘‘starting’’ rate until the cells
are gassing freely, and then reduce the current to the “‘finishing’”’
rate. Some manufacturers give only one charging rate, and in
this case charge the battery at the rate given until each cell is
gassing freely, and the specific gravity does not rise for five hours.
The voltage of a charged battery is from 2.5 to 2.7, measured
while the charging current is still passing through the battery.

If the battery nameplate does not give the charging rate, start
charging with a current which is equal to 1/8 of the ampere hour
capacity of the battery. Charge at this rate for one hour, and
then finish with a current which is equal to 1/20 of the ampere
hour capacity of the battery.

With most batteries, the filling plugs should be removed while
eharging. When charging Exide batteries, however, there is a
tendency to flood when the plugs are out. Many batterymen are
not aware that a simple quarter turn of the movable hard rubber
collar seen inside the well after the plug is removed will put it in
the same position it occupies when the plug is in place, and will
prevent flooding when the plug is removed. The reason for this is
that when the plug is removed, this movable rubber collar closes
the two vent holes in the cover. A quarter turn of the collar will
move it from over the vent holes, allowing the accumulated gases
to escape, and thus preventing flooding. The special design of
this cover, as described on page 98 makes this necessary. Exide
plugs may be removed to see if cells are gassing, but should be
replaced immediately unless the collar is turned as described
above. It is a good thing to make a Cadmium test (see page 266)
on each battery while it is charging. If either positive or nega-
tive plates show a decided loss of capacity, put in new plates.

(b) If the specifie gravity of the electrolyte in a battery is
around 1.150, the battery is completely discharged, and should
be given a complete charge. Such a battery is very likely sul-
~hated to a considerable extent, and it may require from one day

WORK ON THE BATTERY 185

to several weeks of continuous charging to bring it back to its
full strength. Usually the charging current for a sulphated
battery should be not more than five amperes. The current is
governed by two things—(1) temperature, and (2) gassing.

(1) Temperature. Have a thermometer on hand and measure
the temperature of the electrolyte in each cell once every hour.
If the temperature rises above 105°F, reduce the charging current
so that the temperature drops to at least 90°F.

(2) Gassing. A sulphated battery will begin to gas unless a
low charging current is used. If any cell gasses, reduce the cur-
rent immediately, as long continued gassing will cause excessive
shedding. |

If the temperature of the electrolyte does not rise above 105°F,
and if the cells do not gas, the current may be increased. Never
use a current that will cause a higher temperature or bring about
gassing long before the end of the charge. Hf the specific gravity
rises to 1.280-1.300 within 24 hours, the battery was not badly
sulphated. If the rise in specific gravity is slower, continue the
charge until there is no further rise for several days. If the
gravity is then 1.280-1.300, the battery is rejuvenated. If the
gravity will not come up to normal, it will be necessary to dis-
charge the battery and then charge it again. It may be necessary
to repeat this cycle of charge and discharge several times, before
the plates are in a healthy condition. To discharge the battery,
connect it to the Discharge Board (see page 133) and adjust the
switches so as to draw from the battery a current whose value in
amperes does not exceed one-tenth of the ampere capacity of the
battery. Thus for an 100 ampere hour battery, the current should
be 10 amperes. Discharge the battery until the voltage of each
eell has dropped to 1.6 or 1.7. This voltage should be measured
while the discharge current is still flowing. Then charge the bat-
tery again, and discharge it, repeating the charge and discharge
several times. This should remove most of the sulphate.

When you discharge such a battery notice how long it takes
for the voltage to drop to 1.6 per cell. Multiply this time by the
discharge current, and if this product is very much less than the
normal ampere-hour capacity of the battery, the plates have been

186 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

too severely damaged to be of further use, and the battery should ©

be opened. See page 187.

(ec) If the temperature of one or all the cells in a battery rises |

rapidly when the battery is put on charge, and if the specific

gravity does not rise to at least 1.250, there is trouble in the bat- |

tery, and it should be opened. See page 187.

(d) If you are charging a battery at the normal rate, and the
temperature does not rise above 109°F at any time, and if gassing
begins before the specific gravity rises to 1.280-1.300, and the
specific gravity will not rise to at least 1.280, it is probable that
electrolyte has been spilled from flooding due to overfilling, or
slopping, and has been replaced by water. In this case, draw off
some of the electrolyte and replace it with electrolyte having a
specific gravity of 1.400. This should be done while the cells are
gassing. One hour after adding the electrolyte, measure the spe-
cific gravity of each cell. If this is below 1.280-1.300, draw off
more electrolyte and add 1.400 electrolyte. If the specific gravity
is above 1.300, draw off electrolyte and add distilled water. In
this way balance the electrolyte until it has the proper specilic
gravity. | :

If you now have time, put the battery on the discharge board
and discharge at a current equal to about one-fifth of its ampere
hour capacity. Multiply the current by the time required to cause
the voltage per cell to drop to 1.6 or 1.7, and if this product is
nearly equal to the normal ampere hour capacity, the battery will
give good service. Then charge the battery at the normal rate,
and it is ready for use.

(e) If the specific gravity of a battery on charge rises above
1.300, either acid or electrolyte have been added instead of water.
Remove some of the electrolyte and add distilléd water in its
place. When the cells are gassing, and the specific gravity does
not rise in several hours, the electrolyte should have a specific
gravity of 1.280-1.300, and if necessary, electrolyte should be
drawn off and replaced with distilled water, or 1.400 electrolyte,
depending on whether the specific gravity of the electrolyte in
the battery is above or below 1.280-1.300.

(f) It is generally considered necessary to give the battery an
overcharge about once a month. An overcharge means that the

’ WORK ON THE BATTERY 187

normal charge rate is continued until the specifie gravity shows
no further rise for three hours and at the end of this time the
cells should be gassing freely.

If a battery is kept properly charged, that is, with the specific
gravity at 1.275 or above, an overcharge may do harm rather than
good. The charge should never be continued to a point at which
the voltage for each cell raises above 2.5.

REBUILDING BATTERIES.
To Open a Battery.

This relates to batteries with burned-on connecting straps and
terminals, and with compound poured on top of lower covers for

Fig, 94. Before Rebuilding Fig. 95. After Rebullding

sealing. Figure 94 shows the battery before rebuilding, and
Figure 95 after rgbuilding.

First, set the battery an the bench. See that the vent plugs are
screwed in tightly. Then remove any dirt or grease from the top,
sides, and bottom of battery. If the dirt and grease is thick,
temove it with a putty knife. Then put the battery in the sink

' and let the water run over it, using a stiff bristle brush to clean
it. If you have no running water, put battery in a tub and clean
it with.the brush. A large 4-inch paint brush is very satisfactory
for this work, and it will last a year or more if well taken care of.
If the battery is too greasy to be cleaned in this way, use a rag

188 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

Fig. 96, Drilling Posts and Top Connectors, with Battery in Special Box

Fig. 97. Drilling Posts and Top Connectors

WORK ON THE BATTERY 189

dipped in gasoline. The object is to clean the battery thoroughly.
When you have removed all tlte dirt, set the battery on the floor
near your work bench, or in a shallow box about 4 to 6 inches
high and 2 to 214 feet square, as shown in Figure 96.

The next operation is to remove the connecting straps and ter-
minals, You will need for this a large brace with a heavy chuck,
a drill the same size as the post (the part that goes down into the
battery), a large screw driver, center punch, and hammer.

With the center punch, mark
the exact center of the top of
the post and connector. Then
drill down straight about half
way through the straps and ter-
minals, as shown in Figure 97.

Now pry off the connectors
with the screw driver, as shown
in Figure 98. A convenient tool
to be used here to avoid damag-
ing the top of the box with the
serew driver is a length of one —*Fé- 98. Prylng of Connectors with
inch angle iron, which is placed
on the top edge of the box to protect it from the screw driver.

If any connector is still tight, and you cannot pry it off, with a
reasonable effort, bor2 down a little deeper, and it will come off
easily, provided that the hole which you are drilling is exactly
over the center of the post and as large as the post. There are
five things to remember in drilling the connectors and posts:

1. Be sure that the hole is exactly over

the center of the post.
2. Do not drill too deep. Make each
hole just deep enough so that the con-
nector will come off easily. Figure 99
shows a cross section of a post and con-
nector drilled to the proper depth. Notice
that you need not drill down the whole
Mig. 99 depth of the connector, because the bot-

tom part is not burned to the post.

8. Be sure that the drill makes the right sized hole to permit

190 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

the connectors and terminals to be removed easily when drilled
half way through. An electric drill will do the work much faster
‘ than a hand brace.

4. Protect the edge of the battery box when you pry up the
connectors with a screw driver. The angle iron is best for this
purpose.

5. Remove your drill after the hole is well started and see
whether the hole is in the center of the post. Should you find

Fig. 100, Straightening Hole Which was Started Off Center

that it is off center, tilt the brace as shown in Figure 100, and

with the end of the drill pointing toward the center of the post as

you drill, gradually straighten the brace. This will bring the hole
over the center of the post.

y Having removed the connectors, take a whisk broom and sweep
all the lead drillings from the top of the battery into a box kept
for lead drillings only, Figure 101, or into the shallow box shown
in Figure 96. When this box is full, melt the drillings in a large
ladle, and pour off in the burning lead mold.

WORK ON THE BATTERY 191

The next step is to heat and remove the sealing compound s0
that the covers may be removed. The compound must be heated
to a temperature of about 200°
Fahrenheit. Before you bring
a flame near the battery, re-
move the filler plugs and blow
out any gas which may have
collected above the plates with
a hand bellows, Figure 102, or
with compressed air. If you
fail to do this, the flame may
cause these gases to explode,
with possible serious injury to
yourself,

The ease with which the com-
pound is softened and removed
depends entirely upon having
the proper amount of heat, the
proper length of time in apply-

Fig. 101. Sweeping Lead Drillings ing it, and the way it is applied.

Into Box The purpose is to heat the cov-
ers and compound gradually, and not have too hot a flame, as a
hot flame will burn’the hard rubber tops and wells, and ruin the
threads in the wells. The compound must be heated uniformly
to a temperature of about 200° Fahrenheit down to the bottom of
the lower covers, in order to be able to remove it easily.

The methods of heating the compound are:

1. The common gasoline blow torch. This gives a very hot
flame, and great care must be taken not to hold the flame on one
spot for any length of time, otherwise the rubber tops, wells and
threads in the wells will be ruined. If you use this torch, be sure
that you have one that gives a large spreading yellowish flame,
Figure 103. A concentrated, short blue tip flame is unsuitable for.
this work.

2. Natural or manufactured gas, mixed with air. This has al-
ready been described. (See page 154.) Where such gas is availa-
ble, this is a very convenient method to use. The flame is much

192 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

softer than that of the gasoline torch, and may be instantly ad-
justed to any size by the thumb and forefinger of the hand holding
the burner. Any of the flames described under ‘‘Lead Burning,”
page 151, may be used.

3. Figure 104 shows a four compartment sheet steel or iron box
having two gas burners running the full length under a sheet iron
plate extending the full length of the box, midway between the
top and bottom. About one inch above this iron plate is a shelf
of %4 inch to % inch transite board, which is reinforced under-

Fig. 102. Blowing Gas out Fig. 108. Heating Compound
of Battery with Hand Bellows with Torch

neath by several angle iron supports. Two sliding doors divide
one side of the box into halves. The doors slide up and down, as
shown.

When you wish to heat the sealing compound in opening a bat-
tery, place the battery on the bottom shelf. When you wish to
heat the bottom of the battery for removing a jar, place battery |
on upper shelf. The temperature ean be regulated by turning the |
flame up or down. It is a good plan to place a thermometer on
top of the battery and not allow the temperature to rise above
212° Fahrenheit.

WORK ON THE BATTERY 198

4, The Battery Steamer. This has already been described. See
page 140. |

You will need four screw drivers of the following dimensions
for removing the compound: two with ten-inch blades, one with

FOUR COMPARTMENT GAS HEATER

Fig. 104

an eight-inch blade ground rather narrow, and one with a six-inch
blade. A one-eighth inch wood chisel is also useful for this pur-
pose. Place battery on end of low work bench, Figure 55. With
the compound properly softened, no matter what method you have
used to soften it, heat the point of your large screw driver slightly.

194 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

Place tip of screw driver in one of the spaces between successive
cell covers at the farther side of the battery, and hold it at an

angle which will fit the beveled edge of the
cevers. Press down on the handle and
draw the screw driver toward you, using
enough pressure to clean out all the com-
pound in this space as you draw the screw
driver toward you. In this way, remove
the compound from all the spaces between
cell covers, Figure 105. and also all around
the edge of the case. It is easily and
quickly done, and saves time in cleaning
covers later on.

Now, with a long screw driver in your"

right hand, and the angle iron on the edge

Fig. -105: Cleaning
out Cracks ‘with Screw
Driver

of the ease, slip the point of the screw driver under a cover, as in
Figure 106. The covers must be fairly limp, or you will break

Fig. 106. Removing Top Covers with Screw Driver Resting on Angle-Iron

them. They must also be well warmed in order to be.able to sep-
arate them easily from the compound under them. ‘Push the
screw driver point close to the posts, and gradually through to the

WORK ON THE BATTERY 195

other side, and carefully raise cover from Posts. In this way
remove all the covers.

If you do not use the angle iron to
protect the edge of the case, keep the
edge free from bruise marks caused by
the screw driver by lifting the covers
off with the screw drivers without
touching the edges of the case.

With the tops off, heat the point of
the large screw driver pretty hot, and
run it around each well, Figure 107,
cutting the compound from them. If
the wells are removable, take them
out. Now sink point of large hot screw
driver into the compound in the right
hand corner of case next to you. Push
the screw driver across that end of the
ease, Figure 108, raising compound off
the top of jar and the end of the ease.
Follow this by pushing. screw driver -

Fig. 107. Digging Com- along opposite side of case and tops of

mith Hot Berew Dever jars. Then sink screw driver in com-

pound at the corner at which you be-
gan; and in a similar way remove compound from tops of jars and
inside of case on the side next to you, the left hand end, and top
edges of jars between cells, Figure 109. Gather up the loose
pieces of compound and put the compound box under the tool
scraper on your work bench. ._Remember that the end of the screw
driver must be warm at all times, but not sizzling hot. Clean the
screw driver on the tool scraper whenever necessary to keep the
point clean.

Now, sink the warm point of the large screw driver in the com-
pound at the inside corner of the jar to your right, and push along
the inside of the jar to the opposite side. Follow up in this way
all around the inside of the jar, clear down to the top of the lower
cover, Figure 110. If the compound is not warm enough to do
this easily, heat it a little with the flame. In this way remove all]

196 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

the compound systematically from top of the lower cover, and the
inside well of the jar of every cell.

Try to make every motion of screw driver cut out a mass of
compound fully as wide as the screw driver point. In opening
small batteries, you must use a smaller screw driver, but always
use as wide a screw driver as possible to save time.

Gather up the loose compound and put in compound box under
tool seraper. If the lower covers and tops of jars have become

Fig. 109. Removing Com-

pound from Edge of Case

Fig. 108. Cleaning Compound from and Tops of Jars with Hot
‘Top Edge of Jars at End of Case Screw Driver

hard, play the flame over them until they are pliable, but take
care not to burn them. Then run a hot putty knife around the
edges of the covers, so as to remove the compound from the crack
between the covers and jars. Using a pair of crooked-nose pliers,
lift out the elements from each jar, as in Figure 111, and rest on
the edge of the case to drain. If the covers are pliable, remove
them as in Figure 112.

Now is a good time to clean all the top and lower covers and
wells, and put in a properly labeled box as described on page 139.

. WORK ON:THE BATTERY 197

Fig 110. Digging Compound from Covers

Fig. 111. Lifting Elements Out of Jars, and Resting on Edge of Case to Drain.
Note that Cell on the Left Has been two-thirds Dry

198 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

° Fig. 112. Taking Of Covers with Two Screw Drivers

‘What Must Be Done?

The battery is now open, and in a condition to be examined and
judgment pronounced upon it. The question now arises, ‘‘What
must be done with it.’’ In deciding upon this, be honest with
your customer, put yourself in his place, and do just what you
would like to have him do if he were the repairman and you the
ear owner. The best battery men occasionally make mistakes in
their diagnosis of the battery’s condition, and the repairs neces-
sary. Experience is the best teacher in this respect, and you will
in time learn to analyze the condition of a battery quickly.

You may have some trouble in deciding what must be done
with the battery,—whether you should merely free any short-
circuits, and charge it, or put it through several charges and dis-
charges, or whether you must cut off some of the plates and re-
place with good ones.

It is absolutely necessary for you to have a standard method
in working on the battery plates. You must divide your work
into a number of definite steps, and always perform these steps,
and in the same order each time. If you have a different method

WORK ON THE BATTERY 199

of procedure for every battery, you will never be successful. The
preliminary work on the plates should be divided into the follow-
ing steps:

1. Examine plates to determine whether they can be used
again. Rules for determining when to discard or use old plates
are given below.

2. If all plates of both positive and negative groups are to be
discarded, cut off the old ones and burn new ones on the plate
strap.

Fig. 113. Group on Block for Examination

3. If you find that only some of the plates are to be discarded,
or if you are not certain as to the condition of the plates, free any
short cireuits which may exist, and give the battery a preliminary
charge, as described later, before you do any work on the plates.
Plates that are fully charged are in the best possible condition
for handling, and you should make it an iron-clad rule that if
some of the plates can be used again-always to charge a battery
before you work on the plates, no matter what is to be done to
them. Very few batteries will come to your shop in a fully
charged condition, and an exhausted battery is not in a good
condition to be worked on. Charge the whole battery even though
only one cell is in a very bad condition.

To make the examination of the plates, proceed as follows:

200 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

Place a group on block of wood as shown in Figure 113. With
@ putty knife or screw driver, carefully pry the plates apart so
that you can look down between them and make a fair preliminary
examination. Whenever possible, make your examination on the
plates without separating the groups or removing the old sep-
arators. This should be done because:

(a) Very often the active material is bulged, hard, and sul-
phated, and if you pull out the old separators and put in new
ones before charging, the element spreads out so at the bottom
that it cannot be put back into the jars without first pressing in
a vise or plate press.

(b) If you put in new separators before giving the battery the
preliminary charge, the new separators will become clogged up
with any impurities which may be on the plates, and will prob-
ably be cracked by forcing them between the bulged and sul-
phated plates.

If, however, you are not ab-
solutely certain as to the condi-
tion of the plates, draw out a
few separators. Removing a
few separators will permit you
to separate the groups before
removing the rest of the sep- |
arators. To separate the groups.
grasp a post in each hand, as in
Figure 114, and work them

Fig. 114. Separating The Groups back and forth, being careful

not to injure the posts, or break
off any plates. With the groups separated, the remaining sep-
arators will either fall out or may be easily pushed out with @
putty knife. Ordinarily, the groups may be separated in this war
if the elements have thirteen plates or less.

The natural thing to do at this point is to decide what must be
done to the plates, and we therefore give a number of rules ti
help you to determine which are to be junked, and which are to
be used again. Study these rules carefully, and have them fisel
firmly in your mind so that you can tell instantly what must le
done with the plates.

WORK ON THE BATTERY 201
‘When to Put In New Plates.

1, If one or more jars are cracked and leak, and positive plates
have been ruined by freezing, as shown in Figure 115, and if upon
drawing out the separators, and separating the positive and neg-
ative groups the active material drops out of the grids, the only
way to put the battery in a good condition is to cut off the positive
plates and burn in good ones.

Fig. 115. Positives from a Frozen Vehicle Cell. Note Active Material Sticking to

the Rubber Separator

Make a careful estimate of

(a) Cost of new jars.

(b) Cost of new plates.

(e) Cost of new case if needed.

(d) Cost of labor required.

Call up the owner, tell him what the total cost will be, and if
he has no objections, go ahead with the job. If he is not entirely
satisfied with your price, try to get him to come to your shop.
Then show him the battery, explain its condition, tell him just

202 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

what must be done with it, and explain how you made your esti-
mate of the cost of the whole job. If you do this, there will
never be any misunderstanding as to cost. Tell him the cost of a
new battery, and let him decide if he wants one. If the cost of
repairing is within five dollars of the price of a new battery, ad-

Fig. 116. Diseased Negatives. The Large Ones only Eight Months Old. Active
. Material Blistered, Soft, and Granulated
vise him to buy a new one, but allow him to make the decision
himself. He will then have no cause for complaint.
2. If the battery is from two to three years old, and the active
material on the negative plates is bulged, more or less granulated
(grainy appearance), figure 116, and somewhat disintegrated ; if

Fig. 117. Weak and Cracked Positives

the positive plates are weak and brittle around the edges, and
several are cracked, figure 117, and have lost a considerable
amount of paste; and if the case has been rotted by the acid, the
battery should be junked.

Whenever the active material on the positive plates has shed

WORK ON THE BATTERY 203

so that it has filled the bottom of the jar until it touches the
plates, put in a new set of plates.

Call up the owner, and tell him he needs a new battery. If
he does not seem pleased, ask him to come to your shop. Then
show him his battery, and explain its condition. If you are

Fig. 118. Buckled Plates. Do not use such Plates again

Fig. 119. Badly Buckled Plates

courteous and patient, you will sell him a new battery. Other-
wise he will never return.

3. If the positive paste is hard, cracked, and shiny, it is
badly crystallized and will no longer give good service, new
positive plates should be installed. Such a condition is usually

204 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

caused by charging while the electrolyte is below the tops of the
plates.

4. If the positive plates are badly distorted from buckling,
as in figures 118 and 119, they will cut through new separators,
if put into commission again, in from two to six months.

5. A battery which has been dry and badly sulphated at some
past period of its life will have the dry portions covered with a
white sulphate, the acid line being clearly distinguishable by this

Fig. 120. Corroded, Bulged and Sulnhated Negatives. Disintegrated, Rotted
. Positives

white color, as shown at A and B in figure 113. The positives
will be warped and its active material badly blistered or fallen
out. The parts of the separators above the electrolyte will have
been deteriorated, and new separators should be put in. Cor
roded and sulphated grids should be looked for carefully, as in
figure 120. In corroded grids, the pastes cannot make good con
tact. with the grids, and the capacity will be lowered in propor-
tion to the extent of the corrosion. No amount of charging vill |
remove all of the corrosion, as some of the deposit is insoluble, it-
sulating the grids from the active material, and making it difficult

WORK ON THE BATTERY 205

for a charging current to pass through. Such a battery will
become very hot, even with a charging rate below normal.

Corroded batteries are always sluggish, and very little can be
done to help them; discard them if possible, as they are trouble
breeders. It is needless to say that both positives and negatives
are subject to corrosion.

Fig. 121. Disintegrated Positives

Fig. 122. Side, Bottom, and End View of Elements Taken from Traveling Sales-
man’s Car who Made Long Daylight Tours

If you want to try to bring such plates back to life, try charg-
ing at a low rate of about three amperes. The length of time
tequired may be several weeks or more. Be careful not to allow
temperature to rise above 105°. When the specific gravity will
no longer rise, connect the battery to the discharge board and
discharge to 1.8 volts per cell with current still flowing, using a
current equal to about one-eighth to one-tenth of the ampere hour

=
206 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

capacity. Do this charging and discharging before reassembling.
Lower the elements into the jars and connect the posts together,—
positive to negative,—as described on page 213.

6. Rotten and disintegrated positive plates, figures 120 and
121, must be replaced with new plates. The plates have fallen to
pieces or break at the slightest pressure. Disintegrated plates
are an indication of impurities or overcharging, providing the bat-
tery is not old enough to cause disintegration normally,—say about
fifteen months. The lead grid is converted into peroxide of lead
and becomes soft. As a result, there is nothing to support the
paste, and it falls out. Better put in new negatives also.

7. Overcharged batteries have burned and earbonized separa-
tors, turning them black and rotting them; the negative paste
is kept in a soft condition, and gradually. drops from the grids
on account of the jolting of the car on the road. Figure 122
shows plainly the result of overcharging. and overheating. This
battery was only three months old when it went dead. The
owner was a traveling’ man who made long trips of.one hundred
or two hundred miles several times a week. He did not use the
starter often during the day, and did not drive at night, and the
battery was consequently overcharged. Notice from the illus-
tration:

(a) What happens to one cell, happens to all, differing only a
little in degree.

. (b) Carbonized, rotten separators.

(d) Softened active material in negative plates, and dropping
out of grid.

8. Dry, hard, and white, long discharged, and badly sulphated
plates, figures 113 and 120, are practically ruined, though if the
trouble is not of long standing, the plates may be revived some-
what by a long charge at a very low rate, and then discharging
at a current equal to about one-eighth to one-tenth of the ampere
hour capacity of the battery at the discharge board. Charge and
discharge a battery a number of times, and you may be able to
put a little ‘‘pep’’ into it. In charging sulphated positive plates,
use aS much current as possible, without allowing gassing before

-
WORK ON THE BATTERY 207

the end of the charge, or a temperature of the electrolyte above
105°F.

9. When positive paste has become softened considerably.

10. If a battery case is not held down firmly, or if the ele-
ments are loose in the jars, the plates will jump around when

Fig. 123, Element From a “Sloper.” Element was Loose in Jar, and Jolting of
Car Caused Active Material to Fall From Grids

the car is in motion. This will break the sealing compound on top
of the battery, and cause the battery to be a slopper. The active
materials will be shaken out of the grids, as shown in figure 123,
New plates are required.

208 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY
When the Old Plates May be Used Again.

11. If one or more plates are broken from the plate connecting
straps, or the joint between any strap and the plate is pocrly
made. If plates are in good condition, reburn the plate lugs
to the straps.

12. Straight rebuild. If the general condition of the battery
is good, ie., if no jars are cracked, the plates straight and not
warped, no paste shed, no white sulphate on either plates, the
active materials not bulged out, the grids not brittle, paste
adhering to and firmly touching the grids, the positive paste of
a chocolate brown color and fairly hard (as determined by

Fig. 124. Badly Bulged Negatives, Such Plates Need Pressing

scratching with blade of a pocket knife), the negative paste light
gray in color and softer than the positive paste, and the plates not
too thin, make a straight rebuild. To do this, remove any sedi-
ment from the bottom of the jar, clean the parts, insert new sep-
arators, and reassemble as directed later.

13. Badly bulged negative plates, figure 124, cause lack of
capacity because the-paste is loose, and does not make good con-
tact with the grids. If the paste is not badly granulated (having
a grainy appearance), the plates can be used again.

14, Positives which are only slightly warped or buckled may
be used again.

15. When the only trouble found is a slight amount of shed-
ding. Positive paste must be of a chocolate brown color and
fairly hard. Negatives must be a light gray.

WORK ON THE BATTERY 209

16. When the plates are in a good condition, but one. or more
separators have been worn or cut through.

Separators,

It is the safest plan to put in new separators whenever a bat-
tery is opened, and the groups separated. Separators are the
weakest part of the battery, and it is absolutely essential that all
their pores be fully open so as to allow free passing of electro-

Fig. 125. Separators worn thin and cut through on edges by Buckled Plates. Holes
‘worn through by Bulged Active Material. Center puir shows Cell was dry two thirds
of the way down
lyte through them. Some of the conditions requiring new sep-
arators are: °

1. Whenever the pores are closed by any foreign matter what-
soever. Put in new separators whether you can figure out the
cause of the trouble or not. The separator shown in figure 113
is sulphated clear through above the line B. The separator shown
in figure 115 should not be used again.

2. When the separators have been cut or ‘‘chiseled off’? by
the edge of a buckled plate, figure 125.

210 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

3. When a buckling plate or plate with bulged active material
breaks through the separator, figure 125.

4, When a battery has been used while the level of the elec-
trolyte has been below the tops of the plates, or the battery has
been used in a discharged condition, and lead sulphate has de-
posited on the separators, figure 113.

5. When a battery has been
over-heated by overcharging or
other causes, and the hot acid has
rotted, burned and carbonized the
separators, figure 126. .

6. When a battery has been
damaged by the addition of acid
and the separators have been
rotted, figure 126.

When you have put in new sep-
arators, and put the battery on
charge, the specific gravity of the
electrolyte may go down at first,
instead of rising. This is because
the separators may absorb some of
the acid. If the battery was dis-
charged when you put in the new
separators, the lowering of the
specific gravity might not take

Fig. 126. Rotted Separators place, but in most cases the
specific gravity will go down,.or
not change at all.

Separators kept in stock must be placed in a jar and kept
moist with water to which a slight amount of sulphurie acid
has been added. Never allow them to be dry, as this makes
them very brittle and hard to handle.

A tight lead lined box may be used for storing separators.
Instead of covering them with water, a pad of ducking placed in
the box and kept wet will keep the separators in first class con-
dition for months. The separators must be packed closely and 1
compactly. In dry, hot weather, sprinkle the separators occa-
sionally with distilled water.

WORK ON THE BATTERY 211
Find the Cause of Every Trouble.

The above conditions must be studied carefully and be clearly.
tabulated in your mind to be able to tell what to put into com-
mission again and what to discard as junk. It will take time to
learn how to discriminate, but keep at it persistently and per-
severe, and as you pass judgment on this battery and that bat-
tery, ask yourself such questions as: What put this battery in this
condition? Why are the negative plates granulated? Why are
the positive plates buckled? What caused the positive
plates to disintegrate? Why are the separators black?
Why is the case rotten when less than a year old? ‘Why
did the sealing compound crack on top and cause the electro-
lyte to slop? Why did one of the terminal connectors get loose
and make a slopper? Who is to blame for it, the car manufac-
turer, the manufacturer of the battery, or the owner of the car?
Why did this battery have to be taken off the car, opened up and
rebuilt at 5 months old, when the battery taken off a car just the
day before had been on for 30 months and never had been charged
off the car but once? There is a reason; find it. Locate the cause
of the trouble if possible, remove the cause; your customer will
appreciate it and tell his friends about it, and this will mean more
business for you.

From these conditions, you see that most of the trouble i is with
the positives:

(a) Because the positive active material does not stick together
well, but drops off, or sheds easily.

(b) Because the positives warp or buckle, this causing most of
the battery troubles.

Freeing ‘‘Shorts.’’

If you have decided that some or all of the plates may be used
again, the next thing to do is to separate any plates that are
touching, and put the battery on charge. It may be necessary to
put in new separators in place of the defective ones. Examine the
separators carefully. Whenever you find the pores of the sep-

212 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

arators clogged up from any cause whatsoever, put in new sep-
arators before charging.

1. Sometimes the negative plates are bulged or blistered
badly and have worn clear through the separators, figure 125, and
touch the positives. In cases of this kind, to save time and
trouble, separate the groups, press the negatives lightly with
transite boards between them, as described later, assemble the
element with new separators, and it is ready for charging.

2. There is another case where the groups must be separated
and new separators inserted before they will take a charge, and
that is where the battery has suffered from lack of water and
has sulphated clear through the separators, figure 114. The sep-
arators will be covered with white sulphate. Chemical action is
very sluggish in such cases.

If you find that the separa-
tor pores are still open, leave
the separators in place and pro-
ceed to separate the plates that
are touching. How? That de-
pends on what insulating ma-
terial you have available that is
thin enough. If nothing else is
available, take a piece of new
dry separator about 3% inch to
Y% inch square, or a piece of
pasteboard the same size. Use
a screw driver or putty knife
to separate the plates far
enough to insert the little piece
of insulation as in figure 127.

Free all the shorts in this way,

unless you have some old, per-

forated, hard, sheet rubber

available from Vesta, Exide or Fig, 127. Freeing Shorts

vehicle batteries. In this case,

break off some narrow strips 34 inch wide or less, put two together |
and repeat the operation as above, using the rubber strips instead
of the pieces of separator. Insert down 1 inch or so and bend

WORK ON THE BATTERY 213

over and break off; then repeat with the rest of the shorts until
all plates have hard rubber between them. Occasionally the
upper edges of the plates are shorted out, in which case they
must be treated the same way.

Charging.

When you have in this way
freed all the ‘‘shorts’”’ in the
elements place the elements
back in the jars in the same
Position as they were when
you opened the battery, and
add enough distilled water to
the electrolyte to cover the
plates to a depth of one-half
inch. The next operation is to
put the battery on charge.
Grasp each post in the jaws of
a pair of gas pliers and work

the pliers back and forth, fig- Fig,.128. Cleaning Scale From Posts
ure 128, so as to remove the porarity for Charging

seale and allow the connecting

straps to make good contact. Now take a knife and cut off the
rough edges left in the connecting straps by the drill. Taper the
edge, if necessary to go on
post. Turn the connectors up-
side down and pound gently in
position, figure 129, to make a
good connection. This being
properly done, the battery is
ready for charging. Check up
the connections to be sure they

229. Tapping Connectors in are correct.
muse srnpertiny cums =—«-sNow put the battery on

and Shorts Removed charge, and charge at about

one-third of the starting charge rate in amperes. Do not allow
the temperature of any cell to rise above 106°F. Continue the

214 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

charge until the electrolyte clears up, and its specific gravity tests
1.280-1.300, and the plates have a normal color. Fully charged
positive plates have a chocolate brown color, and fully charged
negative plates have a light gray color. Do not take the battery
off charge until you have obtained these results, although it may
be necessary to continue the charge for two, three, four, or five
days. The battery must stay on charge until you have the
desired conditions. If one cell does not charge,—that is, if its
specific gravity does not rise,—you have probably not freed all
the shorts, and must take the element out of the jar again and
carefully inspect it for more shorts.

Right here is where one of the most important questions may
be asked about rebuilding batteries. Why must you free the
shorts and put the battery on charge? Why not save time by
putting in all new separators, sealing the battery, burning on the
top connectors, and then putting it on charge? If you have ever
treated a battery in this way, what results did you get? Why
did you have a badly unbalanced gravity of electrolyte? How
could you know what specific gravity electrolyte to put in each
cell? Perhaps one was charged, one only half charged, and the
other dead. Suppose the dead cell had impurities in it. How
could you get rid of them? Suppose the battery showed poor
capacity on test, what would you do?

The battery is put on charge because you cannot, do an A No. 1
job of repairing in any other way. The chemical actions caused
by the charging current passing through the cells for a long
time have: :

(a) Removed all possible impurities, with the exception of
iron, which is sometimes permanent.

(b) Worked the active materials and put them in a healthy
condition, just as exercise strengthens your body and improves
your health.

all can be handled further in the same way.

(d) Put the plates in the best possible condition to be worked
on. The positive plates are as soft as they can be made to be.
They can now be straightened more easily and with less danger
of cracking. The negative plates are also as soft. The spongy

WORK ON THE BATTERY 215

lead is in the best condition to press firmly into the grids, as
described later.

Let it be impressed on your mind that the foregoing is one of
the most important factors in the rebuilding of batteries. Your
success in rebuilding old batteries depends much upon the
thoroughness with which you follow these instructions. If you
want to succeed, you must be careful and accurate. You cannot
expect to have your rebuilt batteries efficient and deliver their
proper amount of current if worked over in a careless, haphazard
and know-not-why method.

The minute you begin to use this Standard Method and follow
instructions minutely, you emerge from the guess way, the know-
not-why, indefinite way, groping from one operation to another.
The auto battery business has arrived at a stage where the bat-
tery owner demands better work and will find the man who knows
how to do the work in the right way, not occasionally by the
guess way, but can tell him how it should be done, and why it
should be done, and show him by his finished work that he can
do as good work as the factory, because he specializes on old bat-
teries and takes time and pains with each job. Impress upon
your mind the importance of doing every job the very best you
possibly can by a Standard process. Make the rebuilt battery
look as neat, and good as a new battery, so that you will not be
ashamed to put your name on it.

Washing and Pressing.

To continue the actual work on the battery. The battery being
fully charged,—the electrolyte clear, the plates of normal color,
the specific gravity no longer rising,—remove it from the charg-
ing bench and put it on the work bench. Draw each element and
let drain as in figure 111.

Here again the labelled boxes described on page 139 come in
handy. Separate one group, remove the separators, and put one
sroup in each end of box to keep clean. Separate another group,
and nest the plates, figure 180, the negative with the negative,
and positive with positive. Separate the third element and put
groups in the boxes. You now have the plates in the best possible
shape for handling. Take the boxes containing the plates to the

216 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

sink. Ilave a vise or press and the transite boards ready for use.
If, for any reason, you are called away from your work at this

Fig. 130. Nested Plates in Handy
Box for Keeping Them Clean

point to be gone for five min-
utes, do not leave the fully
charged negatives exposed to
the air, as they will become
very hot and will be injured.
Cover them with water. A
one-gallon stone or earthen-
ware jar will hold the negative
plates of a 100 ampere hour
battery if you nest two of the
groups. You may also put
negatives back in jars from
which they were taken, and
fill with water.

Now hold a negative group under the faucet, and let a strong
stream of water run down over each plate so as to wash it

thoroughly, and to remove
any foreign matter from the
plate surfaces. This is one
of the ‘‘standard’’ opera-
tions, and all negative groups
must be handled in exactly
the same way so as to get the
same results in each case.
After you have washed the
first group, place it on edge
on a clean board with the
post down and pointing
away from you, and the bot-
tom of the group toward
you. Now insert transite or
hard wood boards which are
slightly larger than the

Fig. 131. Inserting Transite Boards

Between Negatives, Preparatory to
Pressing

plates, and of the exact thickness required to fill the spaces be-
tween plates, figure 131. For the standard 14 inch plates, the

WORK ON THE BATTERY 217

boards should be 9-32 inch thick. If you do not happen to have
boards of this thickness, use two boards, each 1 inch thick and
a plece of cardboard 1-32 inch thick. Never push the boards
more than 14 inch above the tops of the plates, and be sure that
they cover the entire plates.

Obtain two blocks, each 144 to 2 inches thick, 6 inches wide,
and 7 inches long. To the end of one of these, nail a piece 1
inch thick, 6 inches long, and 6 inches wide, this latter piece to rest
on the sliding jaw and inside of the vise, and the 6 by 7 piece
against the Jaw farther from you. Place the negative group in the
vise, and resting on the 6 by 6 piece at the bottom of the vise.
Place the second 6 by 7 piece against the movable jaw of the vise.
Be careful not to let either of the 6 by 7 blocks extend more than
1% inch beyond the top of the plates, or you may break off some
of them.

Now screw up the vise as tightly as you can. While this
group is in the vise, hold another negative group. under the
faucet and wash it thoroughly, and place on a board as you did
the first one. Take the first group out of the vise, and put it to
the left of the group on the board. Take the transite boards
out of the group removed from the vise, and put them in the
second group. Now put the second group in the vise. Put the
first group in the box to protect it from injury. Repeat this
operation for the third group of negatives, and you have the neg-
atives in as good a condition as it is possible to get them. All
three groups may be pressed at once in the Plate Press, as shown
in figure 77. If you have done the job in a first class work-
manlike manner, the negatives will pass inspection by the most
expert battery man, and be pronounced O.K. Many negative
groups treated by this process will be good after fifteen months
to two years of service after reassembling, and will, at the end
of that time, really justify a rebuild. Keep the negatives in a
stoneware jar filled with water. Never expose fully charged
negatives to air more than five minutes.

The next step is to wash the positives. These should not be
held under the faucet as were the negatives, as this would dis-
lodge much of the active material. Dip the positives up and
down a number of times in a jar of clean water to remove im-

218 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

purities and wash off foreign or loose materials from the surfaces
of the plates. As you wash each positive group, replace it in the
box to protect it from injury.

The groups are now ready to be worked on. If you have
decided to burn on several new plates, proceed as described below.
The negatives which are to be used again require no further work,
as the charging, washing, and pressing have put them in the best
possible condition. Positives which are to be used again should
now be straightened if they are warped or buckled. Positive
plates, when fully charged, and just taken out of the cell, may
be straightened somewhat by inserting between them transite
boards the exact thickness of the distance between the plates, and
pressing the group slowly in a vise or Plate Press for five minutes.
Do not apply too much pressure. If the edges are still buckled,
use a pair of thin, wide nosed pliers and straighten them, being
very careful not to crack the edges. Do not straighten all the dis-
tortion at any point at once, but move the pliers all along the
edge, bending only a little at a time until the plate is straight. If
you are careful,.and straighten all four edges, and not much
paste has dropped from the grids, it may be possible to use the
plates again. If the plates are only very slightly buckled,
straighten them with pliers only, and put them back in commis-
sion.

Burning on Plates.

When you put new plates into a battery, or find some of the
plates broken from the connecting strap, it will be necessary to
burn the plates to the strap. Frequently you will find plates
which are otherwise in a good condition broken from the con-
necting straps. This is most likely to happen when the plates
have been cast on to the connecting strap. instead of being
burned on. These plates must be burned on.

New plates are frequently necessary. From pages 201 to 207
you see that new plates are required under the following con-
ditions:

(a) Positives. Ruined by freezing; weak and brittle from age,
with large part of active material shed; hard, cracked, and

WORK ON THE BATTERY 219

shiny active material; badly buckled; charged while dry; rotten
and disintegrated by impurities; ruined by overcharging; badly
sulphated because allowed to stand idle, or used while dis-
charged; softened active material.

(b) Negatives. Active material granulated, bulged, and dis-
integrated; charged while dry; positives disintegrated’ by im-
purities; ruined by overcharging; badly sulphated because
allowed to stand idle, or used while discharged, or active ma-
terial dropped from grids.

Fig. 182. Burning. Rack

When making plate renewals, never install plates of different
design or age in the same group. Always use plates of the type
intended for the battery. The positive group need not be of the
same age as the negatives, however, but all the plates of one group
should be of the same age and type.

The following directions will explain every step in burning
plates to the straps. The battery should first be fully charged,
as already explained. If all the plates in a group are to be dis-
carded, clamp the post in a vise, being careful not to crack the
hard rubber shell if one is on it, or to damage the threads on posts
such as the Exide, or to draw up the vise so tightly as to crush
the post. Then saw off all the old plates with a hack saw, close

220 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

to the post as shown in figure 132 at A. This separates the entire
group of plates from the post in one short operation. This method
is much better than the old one of sawing the plates off below
the connecting strap, and sawing or punching the old plate ends
out of the strap.

Now set the new plates in the rack, figure 132, and set the ad-
justable guide bar so that the tops of the lugs on the plates extend
above it a distance equal to the thickness of that part of the plate
strap which is still attached to the post. With the plate lugs in the
slots of the guide bar, put the bar shown at B in figure 132 in

Fig. 133. Sawing Slot in Plate Connecting Strap

place and fasten it with two loops of wire as shown. Tie some
asbestos around the post, and put in position as shown, one edge
resting on the bar B, and the other held up by two wooden
wedges. Next place the U-shaped piece of iron around the ends of
the plate lugs, and the post, as shown at C in figure 132. This
prevents the melted lead from running off. Clean the surfaces
of the lugs and edge of the part of the old connecting strap still
attached to the post.

Now apply your lead burning flame, and heat up the ends
of the plate lugs and the edge of the part of the strap
attached to the post, until they begin to melt. Then melt in

WORK ON THE BATTERY 221

burning lead until the tops of the plate lugs are just- covered.
This will give you a perfect joint between the post and the plates,
and will require much less time than if you had sawed off all the
plates below the connecting strap, and had sawed out the ends of
the plate lugs.

If one or two of the outside plates only are to be renewed,
saw these off just below the connecting strap. If one or more of
the inner plates are to be removed from the group, grasp the
plate lug near the connecting strap with a pair of long and rather
flat nosed pliers. Bend the plate back and forth with the pliers

Fig. 134, Slotted Saw, a group with two Plates removed, and Slots in Connecting
Strap for New Plates.
until it breaks off. Battery manufacturers make and sell special
plate punches for removing individual plates, and these may be
used instead of slotting with a saw.

Waving removed the defective plates, saw slots in the strap, fig-
ure 133, exactly in the same place where the old lug was burned
in. Make the slot of the proper depth for the lug of the new
plate. Figure 134 shows the slotting saw, the group in the vise,
and the defective plates to one side. Two regular slotting saws
are placed in an ordinary hack saw frame so as to saw the full
width of the slot, 14 inch, in one operation.

Figure 135 shows the method of lengthening a plate lug. It
will be necessary to Jengthen the lugs on plates which have been

222 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

broken from the strap, but which are otherwise in a good con-
dition, and are to be used again. For a guide use a piece of 1% inch
thick strap iron, 34 to 1 inch wide. Cut notches in this iron hav-
ing the same width as the plate lug which is to be lengthened,
and put the iron and the plate on a sheet of asbestos, figure 135.
Melt the lead in the notch until the desired length is obtained.
Mount the group and the new plate in the burning rack, similar
to the way shown in figure 132, with the lug of the new plates

Fig. 135. Extending Lug on Plate

fitting in the slots which you sawed in the connecting strap. Clean
all the surfaces which are to be melted together, and melt in the
burning lead as previously described.

Reassembling the Elements.

Take a negative group and put it on edge on a board, with post
away from you, and lower edge toward you. Examine the ‘‘hold
down’? blocks, figure 3; if one side has been worn slightly
by the separators but the block is otherwise in a good condition,
turn it over, and place worn side toward the top; if any hold down
is soft and rotten, replace it with a new one. Always make sure

WORK ON THE BATTERY 223

Fig. 186. Putting In New Separators

Fig. 187. Trying on a Top Cover

224 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

that the hold downs are in good condition, and are securely
fastened. .

Take a positive and a negative group and place in position as
in figure 136. The groups are now ready for the separators. Take
six separators in your left hand and bend as shown in figure 136.
Take one with your right hand and slip it into position from the
bottom in the middle of the group, with the grooved side toward
the positive plate, as in figure 136. Take another separator from
your left hand and slip it into position on the opposite side of the
positive against which your first separator was placed. In this
way, put in the six separators which you are holding in your left
hand, with the grooved side toward the positives, working out-
ward in both directions from the center.

Now grasp the element in both hands, and set it right side up
on the block, giving it a slight jar to bring the bottoms of the
plates and separators on a level.

SS Next take a top cover, and try it
on the posts, figure 137. Pull the
groups apart slightly, if necessary,
before inserting any more separators,
so that the top fits exactly over the
posts, figure 138. See that the sep-
arators extend the same distance be-
yond each side of the plates. You
may take a stick, about 10 inches long.
114 inches wide, and % inch thick,
and tap the separators gently, figure
189, to even them up. If you put in too
many separators before trying on the
cover, the plates may become so tight
that you may not be able to shift them
to make the cover fit the posts or you

Tie 38. Getting Poss may not be able to shift the separators
pare eonetators are” in to their proper positions. It is there-
Place fore best to put in only enough separ-

ators to hold the groups together and so they can be handled and
yet remain in their proper position when set up on block.

WORK ON THE BATTERY

Fig, 139. Tapping the Separators
Gently ‘to Make Them Even on
Both Sides of Plates

225

With the element reassem-
bled, and the remaining separ-
ators in their proper positions,
see that all the plates are level
on bottom, and no foreign mat-
ter sticking to them. Place the
element in box to keep clean.
Reassemble the other elements
in exactly the same way, and
put them in the box. The ele-
ments are now ready to be put
in the jars.

Repairing the Case.

Empty the old acid from the jars, take the case to the sink (or
tub), and wash out all the sediment, figure 140. With the pipe
shown in figure 54, you have both hands free to hold the case,
as the water is controlled by a foot operated spring cock.

If the case needs repairing,
now is the time to do it. If the
ease is rotten at top, patch it
with good wood. If the top and
bottom are so rotten that consid-
erable time will be required to
repair it, advise the owner to buy
a new case. Nine times out of
ten, he will do just as you advise,
if you are honest with him.
Sometimes the top of the case
ean be greatly improved by
straightening the side edges with
a small smoothing plane, and
sometimes a 14 inch strip or more
fitted all along the edge is neces-
sary for a good job.

Fig, 140. Washing Sediment from Jars,
‘Water Supply Controlled by Foot
Operated Valve or Cock

Handles that have been pulled, rotted, or corroded off make
disagreeable repair jobs, but a satisfactory job can be done un-

226 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

less the end of the case has been pulled off or rotted. Sometimes
the handle will hold in place until the battery is worn out by
old age if three or four extra holes are bored and countersunk
in the handle where the wood is solid, and common wood screws,
size 12, 44 or 5% inch long, used to fasten the handle in place.
Sometimes it will be necessary to put in one half of a new end,
the handle being fastened to the new piece with brass bolts and
nuts before it is put into place. Sometimes you can do a good
job by using a plate of sheet iron 1-16 inch thick, and 4 inches
wide, and as long as the end of the case is wide. Rivet the handle
to this plate with stove-pipe, or copper rivets, and then fasten the
plate to.the case with No. 12 wood screws, 1% inch long. |

If the old case is good enough to use again, soak it in a solution
of baking soda in water to neutralize any acid which may have
been spilled on or which may be spilled on it later. After soak-
ing the case, rinse it in water, and allow it to dry thoroughly.
Then paint the case carefully with hot asphaltum paint. |

Putting in New Jars.

When you have washed out the jars, examine them carefully
under a good light. If you find any erack or hole, no matter how
small it is, remove the old jar and put in a new one. In order
to remove a jar, it is necessary to soften the sealing compound,
and the heat may be applied in several ways:

1. Place ease in the four compartment heater described on
page 193. :

2. Fill the jar with boiling water if they will hold water, cover
up and allow it to stand for at least fifteen minutes. .

3. Use the Battery Steamer described on page 140.

If only one jar is to be removed, put the steam hose directly
in the jar. Cover the top of the jar with rags or paper to hold
in the steam. Steam for half an hour.

If all the jars are to be removed, put the case containing the
jars into the steam box and turn on the steam. Keep steam flow-
‘ing for one-half hour or more. |

When you have softened the compound by one of the above
methods, grasp the Jar with two pairs of pliers and pull it straight |

WORK ON THE BATTERY 227

up. If the jar will not lift out easily, heat an old small cross
cut or compass saw blade hot with a blow torch, run the blade
down on each side and end of the jar so as to cut away the com-
‘pound. Then loosen the compound under the bottom of the jar
by one of the three methods described above.

After removing the Jar, inspect the inside of the case and re-
move anything which may make it difficult to put in a new jar.

Now heat the new jar with a blow torch,
being careful not to burn it. A good thing
to use here is a block of wood which fits
the inside of the jar somewhat snugly, fig-
ure 141. This will prevent the jar from
being broken when it is put in the case.
Instead of this, the assembled elements

may be put in the jar to prevent it from

Fig. 141. Wooden Block to 1
1 on breaking.

Pour about one inch of hot compound
in the space which the new jar is to occupy. Push the heated
jar down into place. Be sure that the top of the new jar is
level with the other jars in the case. Otherwise you will have
trouble in burning on the connectors, and your finished battery
will look as if a novice had done the job.

Putting Elements in Jars.

With the ease ready, look for the ‘‘+,’’ ‘‘P’’ or ‘“POS”’ mark
on it. Place the case so that this mark is toward you. Put an
element in the jar nearest the mark, with the positive post
toward you, next to the mark. Put an element in the next jar
so that the negative post is toward you. Put an element in the
next jar so that the positive post is toward you, and so on. The
elements are correctly placed when each connecting strap con-
neets a positive to a negative post. If the case has no mark on
it, reassemble exactly according to the diagram you made on the
tag before ‘you opened the battery.

It is well to play the flame over the tops of the jars to soften
them somewhat, so that there will be no danger of breaking a
jar when you put in the elements. If an element fits loosely

228 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

in the jar, it must be tightened. The best way to do this is to put
one or more separators on one or both sides of the element before
putting it in the jar, figure 142.

If you leave the elements loose

in the jars, the jolting of the car

will soon crack the sealing com-

pound, and you will have a

“‘slopper’’ on your hands.

Filling Jars with Electrolyte.

With all the elements in place
in the jars, the next step is to
fill the jars with electrolyte. It
has been found from hundreds
of battery jobs that it is best to
fill the jars with electrolyte be-
fore the covers are put on, or the
top connectors burned in. There
are several reasons for this: 7 Pacing a Separator an Outside

(a) Remember that those plates S*#*t!ve
which are to be used again are fully charged. If the negatives
are now exposed to the air while putting on covers and burning
in the top connectors, they will become very hot and may be
ruined.

(b) In setting new jars or changing from an old case to a new
one, the hot compound, which was poured in the space to be oc-
eupied by the new jar, may foam up when the heated jar is
pushed down into place and run over the top of the jar. If there
is no electrolyte in the jar, the compound runs down over the
plates and can be removed only with difficulty. On the other hand.
if the jar has been filled with electrolyte, any compound which
runs over the top of the jar cools as soon as it strikes the electro-
lyte, and floats on the surface of the electrolyte, and is easily
removed. This also happens sometimes in pouring compound on
top covers. With electrolyte in the jars, sealing compound can
generally be fished out.

(e) When lead burning without electrolyte in the jars, the com-

“WORK ON THE BATTERY 229

pound around the posts often melts and runs out on top of ‘covers.
The electrolyte helps in keeping the post cool and prevents
the melting of the sealing compound.

A two-quart earthenware, glass, or crockery pitcher should
be used in handling the electrolyte. If you have a lead funnel,
use it, So as not to spill any acid on the case, jars, or posts. Pour
in the new electrolyte until it covers the plates to a depth of 3%
inch,

If you have followed the directions carefully, and have there-
fore freed all the shorts, have thoroughly charged the plates
before separating the groups, have washed and pressed the neg-
ative groups, have washed the positives, have then added any new
plates which were needed, and have put in new separators, use
1,400 specific gravity electrolyte. This is necessary because wash-
ing the plates removed some of the acid, and the new separators
will absorb enough acid so that the specific gravity after charg-
ing will be about 1.280-1.300.

The final specific gravity must be 1.280-1.300. In measuring
the specific gravity the temperature must be about 70°F, or else
corrections must be made. For every three degrees above 70°,
add one point (.001) to the reading you obtain on the hydrometer.
For every three degrees under 70°, subtract one point (.001) from
the reading you obtain on the hydrometer. For instance,-if you
read a specific gravity of 1.275, and find that the temperature of

82—70
the eleetrolyte is 82°F, add (— 3-4) four points (1.275.004),

which gives 1.279, which is what the specific gravity of the elec-
trolyte would be if its temperature were lowered to 70°. The
reason this is done is that when we speak of an electrolyte of a
certain specific gravity, say 1.280, we mean that this is its specific
gravity when its temperature is 70°F. We must therefore make
the temperature correction if the temperature of the electrolyte is
much higher or lower than 70°F.

Remember that you cannot charge a battery by adding acid to
the cells. True, you may bring up the specific gravity, but specific
gravity is a true indication of the condition of charge only when
the exactly correct amount of acid is contained in the battery,

230 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

and if there is either too much or too little acid, the hydrometer
readings are misleading. If the specific gravity of a cell refuses
to come up to 1.280-1.300 after long continued charging, make
a cadmium test (page 266) to see if plates are fully charged.
If the test indicates that they are, add 1.400 electrolyte until the
gravity of the cell reads 1.280-1.300.

Putting on the Covers.

After filling jars with electrolyte play the flame over the tops
of the jars until the compound sticking to them is somewhat soft.

Fig. 143, Heating Lower Covers Before Replacing on Battery

Then, with a narrow putty knife, scrape off all the compound you
can from inside of jar. Wipe off the rest with a rag saturated
with gasoline. (Be careful with fire near gasoline.) It is also
a good plan to scrape the inside edges with a knife, since the
cleaner you make the edges, the better will the contact with
the compound be.

The next operation is a particular one, and must be done p7op-
erly, or you will come to grief. Get the box labeled for the vat-
tery you are working on, take the bottom and top covers, and

WORK ON THE BATTERY 231

clean them thoroughly. There are several ways to clean them.
If you have gasoline at hand, dip brush in it and scrub off the
compound. The covers may also be cleaned off with boiling water,
but even after you have used the hot water, it will be necessary
to wipe off the covers with gasoline. Another way to soften any
compound which may be sticking to them, is to put the covers in
the Battery Steamer and steam them for about fifteen minutes.

With the covers clean, seat yourself at the work bench and lay
the inside covers on a board beside you, and play the flame over
them, as in figure 143, and warm them through. Be careful not to
burn them. The covers will now be soft enough to place them in
position on the cells without breaking them. The tops of the
jars should also be warmed slightly before you put on the lower
covers, to avoid cracking them.

If the covers fit snugly all around the inside of the jars so that
there is no crack which will allow the compound to run down on
the elements, all is well and good. If, however, there are cracks
large enough to put a small, thin putty knife in, you. must close
them. If the cracks are due to the tops of the jars being bent out
of shape, heat the tops until they are limp, (be careful not to
burn them). ‘With a screw driver clean all around the outer
edges of the Jars and inside edge of case. Now, with short, thin
wedges of wood, (new dry separators generally answer the pur-
pose), crowd down on the outside edges of the jar, until you have
the upper edge of jars straight and even all around. If the
cracks between cover and case still remain, calk them with asbes-
tos packing, tow, or ordinary wrapping string. Do not use too
much packing, just enough to close the cracks is sufficient. When
this is done, see that the top of the case is perfectly level, so that
when the compound is poured in, it will settle level all around
the upper edge of the case.

Sealing Compounds.

There are many grades of compounds, and the kind to use must
he determined by the type of battery to be sealed. There is no
qeestion but that a poor grade used as carefully as possible will
& m crack and produce a slopper. A battery carelesslv sealed
W.th the best compound is no better.

232 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

The three imperative conditions for a permanent lasting job
are:

1, Use the best quality of the proper kind of compound for
sealing the battery on hand.

2. All surfaces that the compound comes in contact with must
be free from acid and absolutely clean and dry.

3. The sealing must be done conscientiously and all details
properly attended to step by step, and all work done in a work-
manlike manner.

With respect to sealing, batteries may be divided into two gen-
eral classes. First, the battery with a considerable bulk of seal-
ing compound, the quantity depending principally on the amount
of compound used around the edges of case to hold the elements
in position and tight around the posts. This type of battery
generally has a lower and an upper cover, the well being attached
or detached, depending on the design. The compound is poured
in a bulk on top of the lower cover and around the wells, and
when it is hard, the top covers are put on. Now with this type
most of the batteries you come in contact with have a thin hard
rubber shell shrunk on the post where the compound comes in
contact with it; this hard rubber shell usually has several shallow
grooves around it which increase its holding power. This is good
construction provided: everything else is normal and the work
properly done with a good sticky compound. There are a few
batteries with low down connecting straps close to top of covers,
and the compound is poured all over the top of the straps. Some-
times this type gives good service.

The second general type consists of those batteries that have
small cracks or spaces around the jars next to the covers and have
a threaded post with nuts to screw down on covers to hold in
position, or some special means of holding the covers in position.
This type of battery is gaining in popularity, and when properly
designed and built makes a very satisfactory battery. Of course,
in rebuilding this kind of battery, just as in all kinds of repair
work, if the job is worth doing at all, do it as well as you possibly
ean. Have the edges coming in contact with the pitch or com-
pound absolutely clean, have the covers fitting snugly all around

WORK ON THE BATTERY 233

the inside of jars before pouring ; have the pitch (or special com-
pound for this kind of sealing) hot and thin, pour the cracks full
and let cool, and when cold make a second pouring; when again
cold, clean off level with top with putty knife if necessary.

Pitch is sticky stuff. The best way to handle it is, when you
receive it, to melt it and strain it through some window screen
wire into a small, narrow, long box and keep it covered. The best
tool to take some pitch out of box is a chisel made of a piece of
old flat spring, or file. Heat one end red hot, and hammer to taper
point, grind square and sharpen. Then as you need only a little
pitch at a time, heat the sharp edge of the chisel and cut out only
as much as you need. If you do not handle it in this way, you
will get pitch all over yourself.

When pitch burns on bottom of pan, clean it all off, throw it
away, and put in fresh, or you will not be able to melt it thin
enough, to do a good job. Pitch is sometimes used in sealing
motoreyele batteries.

Compound in bulk or in thin iron barrels can be cut into small
pieces with a hatchet or hand ax. To cut
off a piece in hot weather, strike: it a
quick hard blow in the same place once
or twice, and a piece will erack off.

Sealing the Battery.

Always start the fire under the com-

Pound before you are ready to use it,

and turn the fire lower after it has

melted, so as not to have it too hot at the

time of pouring. If you have a special

long-nosed pouring ladle, fill it with com-

Pound by dipping in the pot, or by pour-

ing compound from a closed vessel. If

you heat the compound in an iron kettle, jig, 444. pouring Compound on

Dour it directly into pouring ladle, us- Top of Lower Covers

ing just about enough for the first pouring. The compound should

hot be too hot, as injury to the battery will result from its use.
Pour compound on the lower covers, as in figure 144, Use enough

234 TIE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

to fill the case just over the tops of the jars. Then pour the rest

of the compound back in compound vessel or kettle. Now take the

sealing iron, which should be nearly red hot, and quickly run it all

around the edge of the case and next to the outside of the jars, melt-

ing the compound thin, driv-

| ing off any possible moisture,

and making a good joint between

the compound and the outside

edges of the jars, as in figure 145.

To complete the job, and make as

good a job as possible, take a

small hot flame and run it around

the edges of case, tops of jars, and

around the posts until the com-

pound runs and makes good con-

tact all around. If you have an

electric fan, let it blow on the com-

pound a few minutes to cool it,

as in figure 146. Then, with safe-

ty, the compound used for the sec-

Fig, 145; Using Very tot Sealing ond pouring may be hotter and
thinner than the first.

Fill the pouring ladle with com-
pound which is thinner than that
used in the first pouring, and pour
within 1/16 inch of the top of the
case, being careful to get in just
enough, so that after it has cooled,
the covers will press down exactly
even with the top of the case. It
will require some experience to do
this, but you will soon learn just
how much to use.

As soon as you have finished

Fig. 146. Cooling Hot Compound with .
Electric Fan. pouring, use the flame as in figure
147, and run it all around the
edges of the case and around the posts, being very careful not to
injure any of the wells. A small, hot-pointed flame is safer than

WORK ON THE BATTERY 235

a large, spreading flame for this purpose. Now turn on the fan
again to cool the compound.

While the compound is cooling, get
the connecting straps and terminal
connectors, put them in a two-quart
granite stewpan, just barely cover
with water, and sprinkle a table-
spoon of baking soda over them. Set
the stewpan over the fire and bring
water to boiling point. Then pour
the water on some spot on a bench
or floor where the acid has been
spilled. This helps to neutralize the
acid and keep it from injuring the
wood or cement. Rinse off the con-
nectors and wipe them dry with a

Tepe AL Taneang Campout oth OF Heat them to dry them,
and Around Posts. op covers, which
must be absolutely clean and dry,
and spread a thin coat of vaseline over the top only, wiping off
any vaseline from the beveled edges. Place these covers right

Fig. 148. Pressing Down Top Covers to Make Them Level with Top of Case

side up on a clean board and heat perfectly limp with a large,
spreading blow torch flame. Never apply this flame to the under

236 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

side of the top covers. The purpose is to get the covers on top of
the battery absolutely level, and exactly even with the top of the
ease all around it, and to have them sticking firmly to the com-
pound. There is not an operation in repairing and rebuilding
batteries that requires greater care than this one, that will show
so clearly just what kind of workman you are, or will count so
much in appearance for a finished job. If you are careless with
any of the detail, if just one bump appears on top, if one top is
warped, if one cover sticks above top of case, try as you may,
you never can cover it up, and show you are a first-class work-
man. See that you have these four conditions, and you should
not have any difficulty after a little experience:

1. You must have just enough
compound on top to allow the top
covers to be pressed down exactly
even with upper edge of case.

2. The top covers must be ab-
solutely clean and have a thin
coat of vaseline over their top,
but none on the bevel edge.

3. A good sized spreading
flame to heat quickly and evenly
the tops to a perfectly limp con-
dition without burning or scorch-
ing them.

4. Procure a piece of % inch
board 1% inches wide and just
long enough to go between
handles of battery you are work-
ing on, plane the edges straight.
round the corners a little, and
have the ends sawed square.

Fig 149; Pressing Down ton Covers Around Soread a thin film of oil or

vaseline all over it. Sometimes

with small batteries you need a small piece of board %% inch
thiek to go between narrow places.

Quickly heat the covers and also heat the top surface of the com-

pound until it is sticky so that the covers may be put down far

WORK ON THE BATTERY

enough and adhere firmly to it.

237

Place the covers in position.. Then

press the covers down firmly with piece of oiled wood, as in figure

148, applying the wood sidewise and
lengthwise of case until the top of cover
is exactly even with the top of the case.
It may be necessary to use the wood on
end around the wells and posts as in
figure 149, to get that part of the cover
level. If the compound comes up be-
tween covers and around the edges of
the case, and interferes with the use of
the wood, clean it out with a screw-
driver. You can then finish without
smearing any compound on the covers.

‘When you have removed the excess
compound from the cracks around the
edges of the covers with the screw-

Fig. 150. Wiping Bottom of
‘Spoon Filled with Sealing Com-
pound

driver, take a large iron spoon which has the end hent into a pouring
lip, and dip up from % to % of a spoonful of melted compound

(not too hot).

Fig. 151. Pouring Compound from a Spoon Into
Cracks Around Covers

Wipe off the bottom of the spoon, figure 150, and

pour a small stream of com-
pound evenly in all the
eracks around the edges of
the covers until they are
full, as in figure 151. Do
not hold the spoon too high,
and do not smear or drop
any compound on top of
battery or on the posts. No
harm is done if a little runs
over the outside of the case,
except that it requires a.
little time to clean it off.
A small teapot may be used
instead of the spoon. If
you have the compound at

the right temperature, and do not put in tao much at a time, you
can obtain good results, but you should take care not to spill the

compound over anything.

238 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

After the last compound has cooled,—this requires only a few
minutes,—take » putty knife, and scrape off all the surplus com-
pound, making it even with the top of the covers and cases, figure
152. Be careful not to dig into a soft place in the compound with
the putty knife. If you have done your work right, and have fol-
lowed directions explicitly, you have scraped off the compound with
one sweep of the putty knife over each crack, leaving the compound
smooth and level. You will be surprised to see how finished the
battery looks.

Some workmen pour hot
compound clear to the top of
the case and then hurry to
put on a cold, dirty, and
many times a scorched and
burned top. What happens?

The underside of the cover,

coming in contact with the

hot compound, expands and

lengthens out, curling the

top surface beyond redemp-

tion. As you push down one

corner, another goes up, and rig. 152. Final Operation of Cleaning Of Com-
it is impossible to make the . ill'Gase'an'Tep Covers NuN® 1 MIR
covers level. : .

In 1915, a batteryman in a large Kansas City shop, while put-
ting cold, dirty covers on hot compound, and having great diffi-
eulty in making all the corners stay down, was asked why he
put covers on that way. The reply was, ‘‘because they stick.”
In 1918, the men in that shop are trying to put the tops on
level and are making an effort to do better work. Why? Simply
because they are compelled to, to get work, as their competitors
have thinking workmen who take more pains with their work
and do better work, and as a result, get the business. If the men
in the Kansas City shop do not use their heads and think any
better in treating the inside of a battery than they do the covers,
it is no wonder their repaired and rebuilt batteries do not give
satisfaction.

WORK ON THE BATTERY 239
Burning in the Connecting Straps.

With the covers in place, the next operation is to burn in the
top connectors. Place the battery on the floor near the burning
bench. With a % inch drill,
clean off the tops of the posts
with one or two turns of the
brace, eutting off a clean,
thin shaving, as in figure
153, Now put battery on
bench, or on the Battery
Turntable. With a chisel, 34
inch or more wide, cut the
rough edges from the tops
of the posts, as in figure 155.

Now take a connecting strap

which is dry and free from

acid, and put it in a vise, as

in figure 156. Clean it with

a wire brush, then clean the

openings with a knife. Fin-

ish each end of the top of

strap with a bastard file, as

in figure 154. Place the

straps in their proper posi-

tions on the posts, and with ™* 153. Cleaning, ‘tons of Posts Preparatory
a length of two by four

wood, pound them snugly into position, as in figure 157. Be
sure the connecting straps are level, and the terminal connectors
in the same position as when you took the battery off the car.
Always test the voltage of the battery to make sure that the
total voltage is equal to two times the number of cells in the bat-
tery, this showing that you have connected all the cells in series.

The straps are now ready for burning. Before you bring any
flame near the battery, remove the stoppers, and blow out any
possible gas with an air hose or hand bellows, figure 102. Then
put a long strip of asbestos, 144 inches wide, over the vent holes,
figure 158, or put a 114 inch square of asbestos over each vent

240 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

hole. These serve to protect the wells from the flame, and alsq
keep dirt out of the wells. |

To make a perfect finish of
the compound, turn on a strong
flame of hydrogen (no air or ox-
ygen), and quickly run all
around the outer edges of the
ease and between the covers, di-
rectly on the compound. You
Fig. 154. Rasping Terminals and Connect- must be extremely careful, how-

ing Links Before Burning In ever, not to burn the covers.

For burning in thé connecting straps you need strips of burn-
ing lead about fifteen inches long, and from %4 to % inch diam-
eter. This can be made of old plate straps, connecting straps, and
terminal connectors. Melt these and run them off in forms. The
Burning Lead mold is very useful for this purpose, see page 146.

Figure 85 shows a hydrogen and oxygen burning outfit. A
eareful study of the same will reveal to you any desired informa-

Pig. 155. Chiseling Of Rough Edges from Tops of Posts Before Burning In

tion you wish or need to know to fit one out for yourself that will
do the work right if you follow directions, as follows:

Before turning on either the higher hydrogen pressure or the
oxygen pressure on regulating valves, see that the regulating
valves are turned sufficiently to the left to register 0 when the
higher hydrogen and oxygen pressures are turned on. You must

WORK ON THE BATTERY 241

ever turn the regulating valves to the left when the higher pres-
ures are turned on. If, when the higher pressures are turned
n, the regulating valves register 0, turn to the right slowly

Fig. 156. Cleaning Connector Before Burning In

Fig. 157. Leveling Top Connectors Before Burning In

until the pointer registers 4 or 5 pounds while burning a job.
Have ready some kind of a pilot light so that you can light the
hydrogen without using a match each time.

Turn on the hydrogen slowly, holding the tip to the pilot (the

242 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

point on the tip should be the medium sized one with a 1/32 inch
hole). Turn on enough hydrogen to make a flame 2 to 6 inches
long, depending on the size of a lug to be burned. Use your judg-
ment and common sense about it; don’t try to burn a motorcycle
battery lug with a large strong flame, or a heavy terminal with a
little bit of a flame. When you have the proper sized flame for
.the joint to be burned, turn on the oxygen slowly at the mixing
or ‘‘Y’’ valve until the flame becomes a pointed hissing flame.
Now try it on one of the joints to be burned and play the point
of the flame around on top of post, holding it at the distance which |
melts the lead the quickest. This can easily be determined by

Fig, 158. First Stage of Burning Finished. Note Strip of Asbestos Over Filling
Holes
|
raising the flame up and down slowly. You will note that there’
is a certain point of the flame which melts the lead more quickly
than any other. Keep it at this distance, and as soon as the top
of the post is melted, play the flame around and-around, melting
in lead as fast as you can. Keep it melted all around on top of
the post, building up as fast as you can with the melted burning
lead. Continue playing your flame around and around, joining
the melted burning lead with the melted inside edge of the post,
puilding up until you have enough lead to raise the top of the
post (not the whole top, of connector) evenly, 1/16 inch above
the connector. Do not attempt to finish the top with this flame
and do not let the flame touch the outside edge of connector.
Burn in the rest of the posts in the same way. Figure 158 shows
the first stage of the burning completed. Tura off the gas and
oxygen.

WORK ON THE BATTERY 243

Take a wire brush and brush off the tops thoroughly, until they
are all clean and bright,—then you are ready for the finishing.
You need a soft flame, with less oxygen, just bordering on hissing
for finishing. Begin directly over center of post just built up.
Play the flame on one center until the built up post begins to
melt ; now shake the flame outward back and forth until the outer
edge of connector melts and the top portion of melted post unites
and flows to outer edge. Quickly follow around ahead of flowing
lead with point of flame until the melted lead has united with the
outer edge all round, the object being to melt the whole top of
the post only, not melting deep enough to have it break the outer

Fig. 159. Second, and Final Stage of Burning Completed

edge and run off, but to melt the whole top as quickly as possible
so that it will flow level all over top of connector. Then instantly
raise flame from it. All this must be done carefully and dexter-
ously to do a first-class job, and you must keep the flame shaking
around over the top and not hold it in any one place, so as not to
melt too deep on outer edge or break the outside shell of con-
nector, and allow the lead to run off. Learn to melt just a thin
layer all over the top of connector, and then with a quick twist
of the hand, draw the flame off at the heaviest part of the con-
nector, and at the same time raise the hand. If you allow the
flame to go over the melted lead when you raise it off, it will
roughen it. Sometimes the whole mass becomes too hot and the
top cannot be made smooth with the flame. Either wait until the
connector cools, or soften the flame, or both. Finish all the tops
with a soft flame.

244 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

Figure 159 shows the second stage of the burning finished. Do
not spoil the job by brushing it; do such a good job that it will
not be necessary to brush it.

You should have a set of stencil

letters about ¥% inch in size, fig-

ure 160, and mark every bat-

tery you rebuild or repair.

Have your own private date to

stamp on connectors, and also

the factory date mark. Also

stamp ‘‘POS’’ on positive ter-

minal and ‘‘NEGQ’’ on negative

terminal. Record the factory

date, mark type’ of battery in

a book, also your date mark and

what was done to battery. By

doing this, you will always be yig 160, stencils and Number_Stamps.
able to settle disputes that may Hydrogen, and Oxygen Mixing Y Valve.
arise, as you will know when ** Left

and what was done.

To go one step farther, keep a record of condition of plates,
and number of new. plates, if you have used any. . Grade the
plates in three divisions, good, medium and doubtful. The
‘doubtful’? division will grow smaller as you become experi-
enced and learn by their appearance the ones to be discarded and
not used in a rebuilt battery. There is no question that even the
most experienced man will occasionally make a mistake in judg-
ment, as there is no way of knowing what a battery has been
subjected to during its life before it is brought to you. Stamp
the POS and NEG marks on, then your initials; then your date
of rebuilding and then date of leaving factory.

Directions For Burning in Connecting Straps and Terminal Con-
nectors With Soldering Irons.

There may be some battery men who do not have a gas burn-
ing outfit, or there may be emergencies when the burning outfit

WORK ON THE BATTERY 245

is out of commission and it is necessary to burn in a few joints
without delay. For these conditions this chapter is given.

Necessary Equipment:

Two soldering irons, weighing 3 pounds each, the ends heated
and hammered to long points so that there will be no. difficulty
in touching tops of posts when connecting straps are on.

One large piece of sal ammoniac. Wire solder. Stick solder
will answer the purpose if wire solder is not available.

A plumber’s candle for flux.

One quart soldering acid in a two-quart’ earthen jar; this is
for cleaning the iron after tinning it, and not under any circum-
stances to be used as a flux with lead.

One good sized bastard file to keep the scale filed off of solder-
ing iron and for filing tops-of straps before soldering.

One good pocket knife with strong small blade for cutting and
cleaning holes in connecting straps and terminal connectors.

Some good apparatus for heating irons, either natural gas burn-
ers, gasoline burners, or tinners’ furnace.

The four essential conditions for a perfect job are:

1. Large heavy irons, properly shaped and red hot.

2. Perfectly tinned irons for each joint.

3. The surfaces to be united perfectly cleaned.

4, A tallow candle for flux.

With these four conditions fulfilled, any man of ordinary ability
can, if he follows directions, do a first-class job.

With the necessary equipment on hand, put your irons in a hot
fire. Put your connecting straps and terminal connectors in a two-
quart granite stewpan; barely cover with water; sprinkle a heap-
ing tablespoonful of soda in water, and place on fire and boil.
This cleans every atom of acid from them. Remove stewpan from
fire and pour soda water on some acid spot on floor. Then rinse
the terminals well and place in pile on hot plate and light fire
under them and let burn 5 to 10 seconds only to dry (never go
away and leave them with fire under them) ; then turn fire out,
clean all straps and connectors thoroughly, either with hand wire
brush or circular wire brush run by power. The surfaces to be
fused together must be perfectly clean and bright.

246 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

Now take your 34 inch drill bit in brace and bore a thin shav-
ing off the post,—just enough to bright and clean the top of post.
Use your pocket knife or chisel to cut off dirty, ragged edges of
post. Blow off all loose dirt on top of posts. Take candle and
rub top of posts. Now take the hottest iron, and with coarse
file, clean the four sides of taper point; then tin thoroughly on
the sal ammoniac. Dip point of iron in the soldering acid to
clean. Now hold the point of the iron on the top of the post, and
at the same time melt some solder on the point of the iron so it
will run down off the point of iron and fuse with the melted lead
on top of post. Twist the iron back and forth while holding it in
a vertical position, so as to mix the melted lead with the melted
solder. Repeat this operation on the top of each post, and you
have the foundation for a good job of soldering in.

Now place the connecting straps in proper position and level
the upper surfaces by gently tapping them with a hammer whose
face has been rubbed on sandpaper to clean it. Also put the ter-
minals on exactly as they came off and you are ready to solder in.
Rub a little tallow around holes with plumber’s candle. Take a
cherry hot.iron, file the four taper surfaces clean, then tin on
block of sal ammoniac, and dip tinned point in acid. Holding the
iron perpendicular, place it on top of post and see that it melts the
top of post; then as fast as you can, melt solder into hole, turning
your iron back and forth so as to have the corners of iron come
in contact with surface of inside of hole and melt it, so the solder
will fuse with it. When the hole is full of melted solder, draw the
iron out, and with flat surface of iron, level the top of post care- .
fully by melting solder so it will flow smoothly, all over top, fus-
ing with the lead. If you have done your work right, you have a
perfect joint, notwithstanding the belief that tin will be affected
by sulphuric acid.

Cleaning and Painting the Case.

The next operation is to thoroughly clean the case; scrape off
all compound that has been spilled on it, and also any grease or
dirt. If any grease is on the case, wipe off with rag soaked in
gasoline. Unless the case is clean, the paint will not dry. Brush

_WORK ON THE BATTERY 247

the sides and end with wire brush; also brush bright the name
plate. Then coat the case with good asphaltum paint. Any good
turpentine asphaltum is excellent for this purpose. If it is too
thick, thin it with turpentine, but be sure to mix well before
using, as it does not mix readily. Use a 1% inch, rather narrow
brush, but of good quality. -Paint all around thé upper edge, first
drawing the brush straight along the edges, just to the outer
edges of rubber tops. Now paint the sides, ends and handles, but
be careful to go around name plate without smearing any paint
on it. To finish, put a second, and thick coat all around top edge
to protect edge of case. Paint will soak in around the edge on
top of an old case more easily than on the body of the case as it is
more porous.

Charging the Rebuilt Battery.

With the battery completely assembled, the next step is to
charge it at about one-third of the starting or normal charge rate.
For batteries having a capacity of 80 ampere hours or more, use
a current of 5 amperes. Do not start the charge until at least 12
hours after fillmg with electrolyte. This allows the electrolyte
to cool.

Continue the charge until the specific gravity and voltage do
not rise during the last 5 hours of the charge. If you have put
in new elements or new plates charge for at least. 72 hours.

New battery plates as received from the factory are generally
somewhat sulphated, particularly the negatives. When you assem-
ble an element, place it in a jar, and cover with electrolyte, the
amount of sulphate increases on both positives and negatives.
This action is shown by a drop in voltage caused by extraction
of the acid from the electrolyte. The charge should be begun
about twelve to fifteen hours after you cover them with electro-
lyte. It is better to charge the new plates at a low rate, say 5
amperes, and keep the temperature of the electrolyte below
105°F.

Measure the temperature of the electrolyte occasionally, and if
it should go above 105°F, either cut down the charging current,
or take the battery off charge long enough to allow the electrolyte
to cool below 90°F.

248 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY
Adjusting the Electrolyte.

If the specific gravity of the electrolyte is from 1.270-1300 at
the end of the charge, the battery is ready for testing. If the
specific gravity is below 1.270 or above 1.300, draw off as much
electrolyte as you can with the hydrometer. If the specific grav-
ity was below 1.270, add enough 1.400 specific gravity electrolyte
with the hydrometer to bring the level up to the correct height
(about 4% inch above tops of plates). If the specific gravity was
above 1.300, add a similar amount of distilled water. If the
specific gravity is 15 points (.015) too low or too high, adjust as
directed above. If the variation is greater than this, pour out all
the electrolyte and add fresh 1.270-1.300 specific gravity elec-
trolyte.

After adjusting the electrolyte, charge until the gravity of all
cells is 1.280-1.300, and there is no further change in gravity for
at least two hours. Then take the battery off charge and make a
final measurement of the specific gravity. Measure the tempera-
ture at the same time, and if it varies more than 10° above or
below 70°, correct the hydrometer readings by adding one point
(.001 sp. gr.) for each 3’degrees above 70°, and subtracting one
point (.001 sp. gr.) for each 3 degrees below 70°. Be sure to wipe
off any electrolyte which you spilled on the battery in adjusting
the electrolyte or measuring the specific gravity. Use a rag
dipped in ammonia, or soda solution.

Discharging and Testing.

At this point, many batterymen send batteries out, but it is bet-
ter, if you have time, to discharge the battery and calculate the
number of ampere hours the battery will deliver by multiplying
the discharge current by the time required for the voltage of each
cell to drop to 1.8.

Discharge the battery at a current approximately equal to its
ampere hour capacity, using this current for about 10 minutes.
For batteries of 80 ampere hours or less, use the discharge board
shown in figure 74. For batteries of 100 ampere hours or more,
use the coil of Nichrome wire shown at the left, in figure 73.

- WORK ON THE BATTERY > 249

With the battery discharging, measure the voltage of each cell.
If no cell shows a voltage below 1.8 at the end of 10 minutes, the
battery is normal. In this ease, discharge the battery at 14 to
1/5 of its ampere hour capacity until the specific gravity in each
cell is 1.150. Then charge at the normal rate until the battery
tests 2.5 volts per cell, and the specific gravity is 1.280-1.300, and
adjust the electrolyte to 1.280.

If the voltage of any cell drops below 1.8 at the end of 10 min-
utes, discharge the battery at the rate given on the name plate
until the specific gravity is 1.150. Then charge the battery again
at the normal rate, and see if the cell will come to 2.5 volts while
charging. If not, make a cadmium test, as described on page 266,
and determine whether the positives or negatives are at fault. If
either shows a considerable loss of capacity, the battery will not
give a long service.

The charging and discharging of the battery puts the active
material in good condition, because the active materials must have
exercise, Just as a man must, in order to be in the best of health.
By charging and discharging, you exercise the pastes and make
them as active as possible. Were it not for the time and expense
of charging and discharging, it would be better to put the battery
through four or five charges and discharges.

CHAPTER 17.
SPECIAL INSTRUCTIONS.
Willard Type 8 Storage Batteries.

The Willard Type S Storage Battery is a very difficult one to
take down and rebuild, and great care must be taken to perform
each operation thoroughly, in order to do a good job.

Opening the Battery.

Have the plugs in. With a 7/16 inch drill, bore three holes in
a row in each connector, 4 to % inch deep, directly over the post,
figure 161. Then hold the drill
at an angle and run it along
the slot made by the three holes
so as to cut away the edges left
1 where the holes meet, figure
162. This will give you a slot
} a little wider than the post.

Sweep all lead drillings in a
box with a whisk broom. Re-
move all the plugs and blow
2 out the gas. Heat the connec-
tors by running a flame over
Fig. 763 hard “Tyne S Better f the drilled slot. You can then

; pry off the connectors with a

screw driver, using an angle iron to protect the top of the case,
figure 163. |

Heat the sealing compound with the flame, and with a medium
wide screw driver, cut out the compound flush with the tops of
the Jars. .

Heat up the compound again with flame, and clean out the

250

SPECIAL INSTRUCTIONS 251

Fig. 162. Widening the Slot

Fig. 163. Removing Top Connectors with Screwdriver. Note Angle Iron Held on
Edge of Case to Prevent Damaging Case. Willard Type S Battery

Fig. 164. Removing Pitch with a %-inch Chisel from V-shaped Slot Around
Covers on Willard Type S Battery

252 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

Fig. 165. Lifting Elements Out of Jars, and Resting on Edge of Case to Dralt
Willard Type 8 Battery

Fig. 166. Removing Covers from Willard Type S Battery

SPECIAL INSTRUCTIONS 253

V-shaped cracks with a 1% inch chisel, figure 164. Apply a little
more heat, place battery on floor, and pull out the elements and
drain, figure 165, using two gas pliers or pincers to grasp the
posts in lifting.

Grasp each cover in both hands, work it back and forth,
and lift off or remove as in figure 166. Place an element on
block as in figure 113. Examine plates, and proceed as directed
on pages 198 to 230. After charging, pressing negative plates,
and making any repairs necessary, assemble the elements, put in
the rubber separators, and place elements in jars. Add new
electrolyte, of 1.400 gravity.

Fig. 167. Extending Post on Willard Type S Battery. Note Asbestos Fitted Around
Posts to Prevent Lead from Running Down Into Cell

With the elements all firmly in place, and properly arranged
for connecting, the next step is to lengthen the posts by about
3g inch. Take a piece of 1% inch thick asbestos paper, and cut
holes in it exactly the size of the post. Push this down around
the post, figure 167. Get some 1/32 inch thick sheet iron, 114
inches wide, and 3 inches long, and bend a piece exactly the
same size as the post to serve as a mold. Slip this over the
post, figure 167, and fill all around the inside of the mold, which
will make the top of the post of the proper size. The lower part of
the post is "larger than the top. If the mold does not fit at the
lower edge, calk it with asbestos packing.

With a small hissing flame melt the top of the post in the
mold, figure 167. Then melt in lead as fast as you can until you
have built up the post 7/16 inch above the old top. Let the post

254 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

cool, and then work out the asbestos from the mold with a knife.
Pry off the mold, and in a similar way build up the other posts.
Should the lead ever show a tendency to stick to the mold, rub
a little graphite mixed with oil over it.

The next step is to clean the covers thoroughly. Also clean
the compound out of the wells around the posts with a hot %
inch chisel. A good way to clean the covers is to scrub them
with a brush soaked in gasoline, and wipe them dry. Clean out
the very bottoms of the wells into which the petticoats of the
straps fit, and wipe perfectly dry.

Clean out the inside of the jars near the top, and play the
flame on the tops of the jars, and around the edge of the case.
Use a ¥% inch hot chisel to clean out all compound. Use a hot

Fig. 168. Putting Asbestos Packing Around Post in Willard Type S Battery, to
Prevent Compound from Running Down Into Cell When Burning In

sealing iron to dry out the cracks, being careful not to burn
the jars.

Now place on the covers, and make sure that the upper edges
are straight and square. See page 230. If there are any cracks
around the lower edge next to the jars, ealk them with 1% inch
strands of asbestos. Force this in tightly all around the edge of
the jars.

Now put just enough pitch in a two-quart granite stewpan to
seal this one battery, and not more. The pitch is liable to burn
if heated more than once, and it will not become as thin when
heated the second time as when heated only once. Put the pitch
over a rather slow fire so that it will be ‘heated sufficiently
just at the time you need it. The pitch must be hot, and very
thin to do a good job, yet you must be careful not to burn it, for

SPECIAL INSTRUCTIONS 255

when it burns at the bottom, it is not thin enough to run into
the small cracks, and is therefore not suitable for the first pour-
ing.

While the pitch is heating; straighten the posts so that they
are exactly in the center of the holes in the covers. After warm-
ing them slightly, calk around them with 1% inch strands of
asbestos, figure 168, A small screw driver is about the best tool
to use in calking. When you have calked around all the posts,
the pitch will probably be hot enough to pour. Shake the pitch
around in the pan, and if it is quite thin, and pours very easily,
it is ready for use.

Fig. 169. Pouring Special No. 4 Compound Into Wells Around Posts. Willard
Type S Battery

Now pour the pitch in the spaces between the case, jars, and
covers until these are full. It is well to tamp the sealing com-
pound in the slots with a hot sealing iron. This is made of a
block of copper with a narrow iron blade—to go in the slots—_
attached to the copper. When using this iron, pour the pitch
around only one cover at a time. Then hold the hot iron in a
vertical position, insert it between the cover and the jar, and
quickly move it up and down, thus forcing the compound clear
to the bottom of the slot. Move the iron forward about 14 inch
after each downward stroke. In this way tamp in the compound

256 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

all around the cover. Do the same for all the cells. If you have
an electric fan, turn it on the battery to cool the pitch. If the
pitch was thin and hot, the edges of the jars clean, the covers
clean, and tight around the insides of the jars, the edge of case
properly cleaned and dried, the pitch will stick, and as it cools,
it will sink down in the middle of the cracks. When it has
cooled, pour in some more pitch until it is slightly higher than
the top of the case and covers. When the pitch of the second
pouring has cooled, scrape off the excess with a warm putty knife.

Place the connecting straps in a pan of soda solution, and boil

Fig. 170. Meating Top Connectors trom, Willard Type Battery before Placing
‘on Post

them. Then dry them, and brush and clean them. File out the
oblong holes in the straps with a rat-tailed or coarse flat bastard
file. The straps may be held in a vise, if they are carefully
handled. Also file the tops of the straps clean around the holes.
After the filing, the straps will slip over the posts so that they fit
snugly and will easily unite with the extended post. The surfaces
of the post and strap must be absolutely clean, or else they cannot
be burned together. When you have the straps cleaned up, and
tried on, so you are sure that they will fit well, put some Willard
special No. 4 compound over the fire. Use about a tablespoon
for each post. This compound contains a considerable percentage

SPECIAL INSTRUCTIONS 257

of rubber, and will melt very thin and make a good seal if prop-
erly used.

When the compound is hot and thin, quickly dry out the wells
around the post with the hydrogen flame. Also run the flame
over the compound which you have already poured in, so as to
put the finishing touches to it. With the connecting straps re-
moved, pour the compound into the wells around the posts until
it comes up almost to the top of the edge of the well next to the
post, figure 169. Fill all the wells to the same height.

Fig. 171. Pressing Down Hot Top Connector Into No, 4 Compound. Willard
‘Type 8 Battery

Now put one connecting strap, and one terminal connector on an
asbestos pad, and with a blow torch or strong hydrogen flame
with little air, heat them, figure 170. Be careful to keep the
flame moving constantly, or you will melt them. When hot, put
them in position on the posts with pliers, placing the positive
terminal near positive mark on case. Pound them in place with
a block of wood, figure 171, until they fit tight, and are close to
the covers. Put on the other terminal and strap in the same way,
and the battery is ready for burning.

258 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

In burning these terminals and connectors, several steps must
be taken:

1. You must protect the upper edge of cover all around the
connecting straps and terminals with asbestos paper or transite
board, figure 172.

2. I£ the built up posts extend more than 1% inch above the
top of the straps, cut them down to this height.

8. You must do the burning quickly, or the compound will
boil and run out. If the compeund becomes so hot that it begins
to run out, stop working on that post, and start on another while
the first one cools.

Fig. 172. Transite Board Around Cover to Protect It When Burning In Connectors

4. You must have a rather small, hot hissing flame to start
with, and must do the rough burning as quickly as possible.

5. When all the posts are roughly burned, brush off the tops
and finish with a rather soft, small flame, with just a faint hiss
to it.

6. Mark and paint the battery. See page 246.

If you perform each step carefully, it will take five hours or
more to do a first-class job.

Special Instructions for Exide Batteries.
Exide batteries all use a removable nut to make a tight joint

between the posts and the cover. With reference to other fea-
tures, these batteries may be divided into several classes.

SPECIAL INSTRUCTIONS 259

Fig. 173. Exide Battery, Type 3-XC-13-1, Showing Parts and Construction

1, Batteries having burned-in connecting straps, with a single
flange cover, figure 173.

2. Batteries having burned-in connecting straps, with double
flange cover, figure 175.

3. Batteries having bolted connecting straps, with double
flange cover. These never use the single flange cover.

(a) Batteries with burned-in connectors—types XA, XC, LX,
SX, ZA, JX, PHA, MHA. Remove these as described on pages 187
to 191.

(b) Batteries with bolted
connectors,—types X, PH,
PHB, MH, ZB. The nuts
should be removed with a
socket wrench of the proper
size, figure 174. Then re-

Fig. 174. Socket Wrench move the connectors and

washers carefully, and put

in one of the labeled boxes previously mentioned. There are

two top nuts and straps for each complete strap, and three wash-
ers over each post, as shown in figure 176.

THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

260

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Fig. 175. Section of Exide Battery with Burned-In Connections, and Single Flange

Cover

SPECIAL INSTRUCTIONS 261
Removing Covers.

Batteries, types X, XA, PH, _—
and MH have tie bolts which
run through the case from side —
to side, between the jars. The
jars are spaced properly by
horizontal, wooden strips, be-
tween which are the tie bolts.
Unserew these bolts several
turns to release the jars.

The next step is to remove
the sealing nuts. For this pur-
pose you need a special Exide
Sealing nut wrench, figure 177.

Never use any other tool for

this purpose. Heat the tops of yi. 477, uxide Sealing Nut Wrench
the cells a little, and with two
crooked nosed pliers, raise the complete cell an inch or two.

Next remove the sealing compound. The single flange cover
(used on types XC, LX, SX, and JX) rests on rubber gaskets
placed on top of the posts, and is level with the top of the jar,
leaving a V-shaped slot all around the inner edge of the jar which
is filled with pitch. The pitch may be softened as previously
deseribed (page 191), or a hot screw driver may be run through
it in order to remove it.

The double flange cover (used on types X, XA, PH, MH, ZB,
and ZA) laps over both the inner and outer edge of the jar. There
are two flanges, one on the outside, and the other on the inside of
the jar, forming a slot which fits over the top of the jar, and also
holds the pitch. To remove the pitch, run the flame all around the
edge of the cover, but be extremely careful not to burn the cover.
After the outer flange is thoroughly warmed, the cover will lift off
slowly. Support the cell on two blocks, the lower edge of the
outer flange resting on the top of the block, and the bottom of the
jar raised slightly above the bench. Press down on the posts, and
the cell will drop free of the cover, figure 178.

Inspection of plates, ete. This has already been described fully,

£5.B, 00.907
Fig. 176. Parts for Bolted Connections

262 TIIE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

pages 198 to 222. The only special instructions needed refer to the
perforated rubber separators used in types PH and MH. These are
nearly always in such a condi-

tion that they can be used again,

unless they have been broken in

handling, or worn through.

Better have some of: these on

hand in case you break some.

Reassembling.

Put the positive and negative
groups together without separat-
ors, place the rubber washers on
the posts, and put on the cover.
Put on the sealing nuts, and
tighten them slightly with your
fingers. If the nuts turn on hard,
spread a little graphite—which
has been mixed to a paste with
water—on the threads, Never
use vaseline or grease for this purpose. Now put in the separators.
(See page 224.) Tighten the sealing nuts with the wrench shown
in figure 177.

Next lock the sealing nuts. On batteries using burned-in con-
nectors, the thread on the post extends above the top of the nut.
Hold the point of a center punch (or nail) on the thread at the
top of the nut and strike a sharp blow with a hammer, figure 179.
This will damage the thread and prevent the nut from turning loose.
Do this at several points around the post.

On the batteries having bolted connections, the washers, straps
and top nut will hold the sealing nut firmly in place.

Fig. 178. Removing Double Flange Cover

Sealing.

Remove all old compound from covers and jars and wipe with
a cloth dipped in ammonia or soda solution. In sealing batteries
that use the single flange cover, melt the compound and pour it into

SPECIAL INSTRUCTIONS 263

the V-shaped groove, finishing as usual. In sealing batteries using
the double flange cover, clean the groove thoroughly and pour one-
half full of hot pitch. Place

cover on top of jar and press

down evenly all around. Anoth-

er way is to roll out between two

boards some of the special Exide

compound, made for this type

of cover, until it is about 3-16

inch in diameter. Lay this com-

pound in the groove while the

element is upside down, figure

180. Then put element in jar,

and press down evenly so that

the top of the jar presses up

against the compound at all

points, Run a flame around the

outside of the flange until the

compound melts evenly. Press

down the cover carefully. Re-

move any compound which is

foreed down out of the groove

with a hot putty knife or screw Fis: 170, Yocking Bealtag Nos
driver.

Putting Cells in Case.

When all the cells have been sealed, put the elements in the
cases, taking care to have the positive and negative posts placed
correctly for putting on the connectors, In types X, XA, PH, and
MH, be sure to put in the wooden spacers between cells, and
tighten the tie bolts to hold the jars firmly in place. If the bat-
tery has no tie bolts, wedge the jars in place with strips of wood
if they do not fit snugly.

Putting on Connecting Straps,

Directions for the burned-in connectors have already been
given (pages 239 to 246). In placing the bolted connectors, spread
vaseline over the studs. Put the connectors and washers on in

264 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

the following order,—one connector link, one washer, second
connector link, second washer, top nut. Tighten the top nut with
socket wrench, figure 175.

The remaining steps consist of
charging, and balancing the
electrolyte, consult pages 247
and 248,

In addition to the three types
of Exide batteries described
above, there are several other
types which use no sealing com-
pound at all, and therefore re-
quire no special instructions.
An old type has two covers, the
lower of which is somewhat sim-
ilar to the single flange cover
described above. The upper
cover fits over the outside of the
jar.

Fig. 180. Sealing Double Flange Cover

Special Instructions for Prestolite and U.8.L.

The Prestolite and U.S.L. Companies make a new type of bat-
tery which resemble each other in a number of respects. The tops
are like U.S.L. described on page 98. Take great care in bring-
ing a flame near these batteries, as gas may be pocketed under
the covers and cause an explosion. There is only a small vent
hole through which gas can escape, as the wells extend down into
the electrolyte when the cells are properly filled.

When you work on these batteries, draw out enough electro-
lyte so that it is below the bottom of the well. Then thoroughly
blow out any gas which may have become pocketed under the
cover. .

Another unique feature of construction is the post and lead
sealing shell fitting over it. After this shell has been screwed
into the cover from below against a soft rubber gasket, the tops
of the shell and post are burned together. This makes a perfectly
tight seal, provided the shells have been screwed up tightly. The

SPECIAL INSTRUCTIONS 265

Sealing arrangement around the edge of the jar is similar to that
in the single flange Exide cover, figure 173.

Be very careful in sealing this type of battery. Ordinary com-
pounds will not hold. Use pitch, or a high grade and very sticky

Fig. 181. Prest-O-Lite Battery, Showing Parts and Construction

» compound. Never use compound or pitch a second time for this

battery.
Figure 181 shows a Prest-O-Lite Battery. Directions already

given apply to this type also.

CHAPTER 18.
CADMIUM TEST. STORING BATTERIES.
Cadmium Test for Storage Batteries.

Tests of the specific gravity of batteries and tests of voltage
of the cells give indications that are quite reliable, but unfor-
tunately either the voltage or gravity or both voltage and gravity

1 DISCHARGEO CHARGED
pe

<
oe
rc
in
>
en

‘

pe arive

amr ER

Fig. 182

may be satisfactory and yet the battery capacity may be very low.

This is true because either the positive or negative plates may

not be charging or discharging properly and if either set does

not completely charge and discharge, then the capacity of the
266

CADMIUM TEST. STORING BATTERIES 267

cell can only be equal to the capacity of the faulty set of plates.
Should such a condition exist, the voltage will fall rapidly during
discharge and the capacity of the battery will be greatly reduced.

The change in voltage of the positive and negative plates, be-
tween the discharged and the charged condition is graphically
shown in figure 182. The horizontal lines represent the change
in voltage starting from the heavy line marked ‘‘O”’ and increas-
ing above the line for positive polarity and below the line for neg-
ative polarity. |

The positjon of the negative plates of a discharged cell as to
voltage is represented by the heavy line marked ‘‘Negative’’ in
the column headed ‘‘Discharged.’’ The position of the positive
plate at this time is indicated by a heavy line marked ‘‘Positive’’
and in this same column. The voltage of the negative plate with
relation to the ‘‘O”’ line is 0.25 and the voltage of the positive
plate with reference to this same ‘‘O”’’ line is 2.05. It will be
seen that the total difference in voltage between the positive
and negative plates is therefore 1.8, or 2.05 minus 0.25, and it
will be recognized that this voltage (1.8) is the voltage of a dis-
charged storage cell.

The relative voltages of the positive and negative plates in
a fully charged cell are indicated by the heavy lines in the column
marked ‘‘Charged’’ and it will be seen that the voltage of the
positive plate has become 2.3 above ‘‘O’’ while that of the neg-
ative has become 0.2 below the ‘‘O”’ line. The total difference
in voltage between the positive and negative plates is now 2.5, or
2.3 plus 0.2. It will be recognized that this voltage (2.5) is the
voltage of a storage cell when fully charged.

The voltage of the positive plates has changed 0.25 of a volt,
that is from 2.05 to 2.3. The voltage of the negative plates has
ehanged 0.45 of one volt, that is from 0.25 above the ‘‘O”’’ line
to 0.2 below the ‘‘O’’ line. Therefore, in order that a discharged
cell may become fully charged, it is necessary that the voltage
of the positive plates change 0.25 of a volt and the voltage of the
negatives must change 0.45 of a volt.

If for any reason the positive plates should get into such a
condition that their voltage does not change over this range, the
battery cannot have full capacity or full voltage on discharge.

268 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

The same is true of the negative plates, their voltage should
change over the entire normal range.

It will be seen by examining the diagram in Figure 182 that it
would be quite possible for the cell voltage to be normal and yet
have an incorrect relation between either the positive or negative
plates and the ‘‘O”’ point. For instance with a fully charged bat-
tery, should the voltage of the positive plate be found consider-
ably below the normal point, it would indicate that the lead sul-
phate had not been completely reduced and replaced by peroxide

WooD TEST ROD N21.

Fig. 183. Making a Cadmium Test

of lead. Should it be found that with a charged battery the
voltage of the negative plates remains above or on the positive
side of the ‘‘O”’ line or if it does not drop to the proper point
on the negative side below the ‘‘O’’ line, it would indicate that
the lead sulphate on the negative plates had not been completely
reduced and replaced by sponge lead. In either case the remedy
would be to.give the battery a long continued charge at a low
rate, that is, at the twenty-four hour rate.

The voltage of the separate sets of plates is méasured by attach-
ing one side of a voltmeter to the terminal of the set of plates
that is to be tested and attaching the other side of the voltmeter

CADMIUM TEST. STORING BATTERIES 269

to a rod of the metal cadmium, which is then inserted into the elec-
trolyte of the cell. The voltmeter will then indicate the volt-
age between the cadmium and the plates being tested. The cad-
mium remains inert and is represented by the ‘‘O”’ line on the
diagram. With the voltmeter connected between the cadmium,
which represents ‘‘O,’’ and either set of plates, the plate voltage
may be found.

The cadmium rod should be from 3-16 to 8% of an inch in
diameter, and from 3 to 4 inches long.. Solder it to the side of a
rod of copper or bronze, as shown at No. 1 in Figure 183. You
will need a second test rod, as shown at No. 2 in Figure 183.

The voltmeter for this test should have a scale reading up to
2.5 volts, and should preferably have the ‘‘O”’’ in the center. If
the ‘‘O’’ is at the left end of the scale, the wires attached to the
test rod should be connected to the meter terminals so that the
needle swings toward the right. If the pointer should swing to
the left in this meter, reverse the wires at the meter terminals
so that it will swing to the right.

If you use Ambu in making the cadmium test, connect the wires
which are fastened to the test rods to the ‘‘—’’ and ‘‘2.5’’ posts.
Set lever ‘‘C’’ so that the ‘‘O”’ line on the ‘‘ VOLT AND AMPERE
SCALB’’ is under the pointer, and turn the button switch so that
the arrow points to ‘‘V.’’ Do not move the ‘‘C’’ lever again
during the test. .

The cadmium should be covered with a rubber tube which has
holes cut in it. No part of the rod should touch the plates. In
testing the positive plates, test rod No. 2 is held on the positive
post of the cell, and the cadmium rod is inserted in the vent hole.
In testing the negative plates, test rod No. 2 is held on the negative
post of the cell, and the cadmium rod is inserted in the vent hole.
The acid must cover the lower part of the cadmium.

When about to proceed with the work the cadmium which has
been covered with rubber should be inserted in the electrolyte and
allowed to remain so that its surface may reach a condition that
will not change with further action of the acid. The surface of
the cadmium should never be scraped or polished as this will pre-
vent uniform readings from being secured under various con-
ditions and with varying intervals of time.

270 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

The methods of inserting the cadmium pencil into the cell and
of connecting the cadmium and cell terminal with the voltmeter
are shown in Figure 183.

Charged battery. Test the negative and positive plates as di-
rected above. Test the positive plates first. Then test the nega-
tive plates. If you are using a voltmeter with the ‘‘O’’ at the left
end of the scale, the pointer should swing ‘‘backwards’’ when
you test the negatives, and the wires connected to the meter should
be reversed, and the test repeated. If you are using Ambu, the
pointer should swing to the opposite side of the ‘‘O’’ line when
testing the negatives that it did in testing the positives. The
charging current should be passing into the battery when the tests
are made on each cell. The voltage reading between the cadmium
and positives should be between 2.35 and 2.45.

The voltage reading between the cadmium and the negatives
should be between 0.1 and 0.2. If the pointer is near the ‘‘O’’
line in testing the negatives, or swings to the same side of the ‘‘O”’
line as it does in testing the positives, the negatives are defective.
The farther the pointer goes to the other side of the ‘‘O”’ line, the
better the condition of the negatives.

If the voltage reading obtained in testing the positives is less
than 2.35 volts, and the negative plates give a normal reading of
0.1 to 0.2 volts, the positive plates are defective. The causes may
be sulphated plates, leak of current between plates, natural age-
ing of the battery, or lack of charge. In this case, discharge the
battery to 1.8 volts per cell, (see page 248), and then charge it
again. Repeat this several times.

Discharged battery. Test the positive plates as directed above.
Then test the negatives, the pointer should swing to the same side
of the ‘‘O’’ line in each ease, without reversing the wires attached
to the meter. With a battery having a voltage of 1.8 per cell, the
reading obtained when you test the positive plates should be about
2.05 volts. The reading obtained when testing the negatives
should be about 0.25. The readings should be taken while the —
battery is discharging at the normal rate. |

In some cases, readings obtained in both tests for positive and
negative plates are nearly zero. This indicates a short circuit, and
the battery should be opened. See page 187.

CADMIUM TEST. STORING BATTERIES 271
Storing Batteries Dry.

Taking a battery out of commission for dry storage of six weeks
or longer (six years, if necessary) consists in putting each cell
in condition to charge normally; then charge it until the gravity
will not rise any more, the electrolyte is clear, and the plates all
of the proper color; at this stage the charging has excluded all
impurities possible from the plates and the pores contracted to
their limit. Pour out the electrolyte, separate the groups, remove
the separators, and press the negative plates as follows:

Put a smooth straight board or transite board, the thickness of
the positive plate plus two separators, (which in the ordinary
automobile battery is just a trifle over one-fourth of an inch) in
each space between the negative plates of that group, then place
a piece of 2’x6”x7” long board on each side of group, put group
in vise or plate press, draw up slowly till tight. Leave for a few
moments; then remove from vise or press and remove boards, and
rinse group in clear water. Treat each negative group in similar
manner and then put in jars and cover with distilled water for ten
or twelve hours. Then remove and dry; but if they begin to heat,
dip in water and dry; repeat the dipping if they heat the second
time. Continue dipping the group after drying as long as the
plates heat up. When the plates are thoroughly dry, immerse
them in clean, new electrolyte (of about 1.275 specific gravity)
and allow to soak for three or four hours. The jars may be used
for this purpose. After rinsing and drying they are ready to put
away.

The positive plates should not be washed but may be dipped in
the above acid several times to clean them. They should be
straightened as much as possible immediately upon removing from
jars. Sometimes this may be done (if not too hard) by placing ~
boards between them as with the negatives and pressing in vise
or plate press. Do not apply much pressure. Press the group
about 10 or 15 minutes, and then use flat nosed pliers to completely
straighten the edges if they are still warped. Plates can gener-
ally be straightened fairly well, but care must be used not to
erack them. If plates are cracked, or buckled badly, replace with
new ones without hesitation. The positive plates must not be left

272 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

exposed to the light. Throw away the old separators. Clean the
covers and terminals, as directed elsewhere, wash out the jars and

put a positive group in each jar. Nest two negative groups and |
with covers and terminals put in labeled box as described else- —

where.

Store the case and box in a dark place until called for. You
should tell the owner when arrangements are made for storing
that he must give you ten days’ notice to put battery back into
commission. When a battery is dry stored as above, to put it

into commission, use about 1.360 gravity acid, fully charge and

discharge, making two complete cycles, and balance to 1.280.
With this treatment the pastes become active and put the battery
into first-class condition.

Finished Work.

Perform every detail, from boring off connecting straps, to
the final charge with the utmost care. Make it an iron-clad rule

that every battery which you rebuild must be rebuilt as nearly |

perfect as you can; that every battery you turn out of your shop
will deliver from 80% to 90% of its rated capacity; that every
such battery will stand up under the service required of it.

See that every job you turn out is done as well as you ean do
it. Make each job a little better than the previous one. Treat
each customer courteously, and never promise anything unless
you know absolutely that you can keep that promise. Put your-
self in your customer’s position, and be as careful of his money
as if it were yours, and you were paying a repairman to put your
battery in shape.

Do not grow careless and do sloppy work. Be conscientious,
and do everything right. If you do not know the right way, make

up your mind to learn the right way. You must know what you
are doing, and must not grope around on a job. If you make a
guess as to what should be done, and adopt the cut-and-dry
method, you will ‘‘fall down on the job’’ nine times out of ten.

The battery owner may pay the bill once, for a poor job, but he
will never come back. The public is just as intelligent as you

CADMIUM TEST. STORING BATTERIES 273

Fig. 184. Upper Sido of a Very Poorly Burned-In Connector

Fig. 185. Under Side of Link Shown In Previous Figure. Note that Holes were
Bored with a Wood-Bit

Fig. 186, Trouble Breeders. Failures in Making Connections and Burning In

274 THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

are, and knows when it is being ‘‘soaked.’’ Car owners soon learn
to go to the man who knows what he is doing, and who does it
in the right way.

Inferior work, such as the burning shown in figures 184, 185,
and 186, will soon put you out of business. Your reputation is
at stake every time you rebuild a battery. It is in your power to
build up a reputation for good work that will make you the
busiest battery man in your vicinity.

You should go a step beyond repairing the battery. You should

know, when a car leaves your shop, that there are no grounds or |
short circuits in the wiring which will cause the battery to run

down, and that the generator is charging at the proper rate. The
best way to do this is to have an AMBU ELECTRICAL TROUBLE
SHOOTER, which gives the proper charging rates for all types

and makes of dynamos which have been used as standard equip- |
ment since 1911, and which furthermore quickly locates and tells |

how to cure any troubles which may exist in the starting or light-
ing system. If you find any repair troubles outside of the battery,
you will earn more money, and you will have car owners coming
to your shop from near and far. :

INDEX

A
Page
Adding water to replace evaporation. ...........ccccceccccccaces 73 to 78 .
Adjusting the electrolyte after rebuilding...................0 cc eeeees 248
Analysis of the condition of the battery...................--0 00s 162 to 172
Assembling and finishing elements during manufacture...............64- 100
B
Batteries in general...... 0.2... ce ccc ce ee tte ee ce ee eee e ee eneeeee 5
Battery case rotted. Causes and remedies.............. ccc eee eee eee 177
Battery discharges rapidly. Causes and remedies..................-000- 178
Battery trouble charts......... 0.0... cece cc eect ce eee eee ee eee 172 to 178
Battery will not take charge. .... 0.0... ce ee weet een eees 176
Boring off connecting strapsS..... 0.0... cece ccc ee ee ce eee eee ee eee 189:
Buckling of plates... ...... 0c ccc ccc ee ce ee ee eet eee eee eeee 58
Burning lead mold........ cece cece eee eee eet ee teen cent weenie 146
Burning on connecting straps with Oxy-Hydrogen flame................. 239
Burning on connecting straps with soldering irons..................08.. 244
Burning on new plates.......... 0 eee ee eee eee ee ence eee ees 218
C
Cadmium test for storage batteries.............. cece ee eee ee eeee 266
Capacity of storage batteries ...... 0... cece tee eens 40
Capacity, causes for loss Of... 2... ce cece ce eee eee eee eee ee ence 54
Capacity, effect of age On.... 6.6... cece ce cee eee cence A6
Capacity, effect of circulation of eloctrolyte on............ Lecce eu euaes 43
Capacity, effect of plate surface area On... ..... cece teenies 41
Capacity, effect of quantity, arrangement and porosity of active material on 41
Capacity, effect of quantity and strength of electrolyte on..............4. 41
Capacity, effect of rate of discharge on...............-. re 43
Capacity, effect of temperature On.... 0.6... eee eee eee te ete e ees 45
Care of battery when not in service.......... eee eee ee eet tee eee 88
Case, care of battery... ....... eee eee eee eee Leet ee ees 72
Case, cleaning and painting the............6- ese e eee eee eee eee eee 246
Case, manufacture of........ bee cece tee en te tee eee eee eee eee sree enene 99
Case, repairing the....... 6.50 cece ccc e eer ee ee eet eee teen nee eens 225

2718 INDEX

Page
Case, rotted... .cccccccc secre cect eee c et tanec eee eee eeee est estseeeres liz
Cell, elementary... .. cc. cece ce cece ee eee tenets eeeeeeees 5
Cell, things required in storage.......... 0... . eee cece eee eee eee eeeee 7
Cells, primary and secondary..............00c cece cence ee eee eee eeeees 6
Charge, battery will not hold........-.... ccc eee eee te eee tenes 178
Charge, battery will not take............ 0c eee cc ce ee ee eee .176
Charge, changes at negative plates during.......... 2... 0c cess eee wees . 38
Charge, changes at positive plates during............. 0.2... cece ee ee eee 39
Charge, change in density of electrolyte during................. 0500 eee 38
Charge, chemical actions of ............ ccc cece ee ce ee eee eee eeeeee 15
Charge, final products of ............. eee cece ce ee ee ee eee eens 12, 14
Charge for sulphated battery.......... 0. ce cece cee nee eee e eee 184
Charge, freshening......... 0... ccc eect ee eee een eee tees ee eeeeee T2
Charge, gassing during............. 00. cece e eee eee eens Dette e eee eee 184
Charge, ions Guring..... 2... cece ccc ee eee eee eee teeta eee 18, 22
Charge, loss of in an idle battery. ... 2.0... ... cc cece eee eee eee 26
Charge, normal... ... ccc cece cece cece eet eee eee et eee e eens 184
Charge phenomena........... 0. cece ce ce cee cee teen eee eee ee eees 37
Charge, specific gravity does not rise during.............. 00. ee ee ee eee 186
Charge, specific gravity rises above 1.300 during.............. 2.0. ee eee 186
Charge, starting rate Of... ... 6. ccc cee ce cc cee ee eet eee te ee tenets 184
Charge, voltage changes during.......... 0... 0. cece eee eens 37
Charging oattery before rebuilding. ........-... 0.0... cece ee eee eee eee 182
Charging battery off the car... .... cee cee ce ee eee tenes 183
Charging battery on the car........ ee ce eee ee eee ees 182
Charging bench... ....... cee cc eee cee eee ee eee eee eee ee ee eens 114
Charging equipment...... 0... cc eee ee eee eee eee tence eee 113
Charging methods.......... cece eee cece ce ee eee rete eee eee tenes 110
Charging the rebuilt battery........ 0... 0. cee cc eee eee eee ce eee 247
Chemical actions, substances which enter into the........... cee cece eee 12
Chemical actions which produce electricity.................. cece eee eee 11
Cleaning and painting the case..... 2... .. cc ee eee ee eee eee 246
Condition of battery. Analysis of........ 0... ccc cece ee eee eee 162 to 172
Conditions of operation, engine idle. ... 2.0.2... ce eee cee ee ee ens 62
Conditions of operation, engine running....-........ cece eee ce ee ween 63
Connecting straps, burning on, with Oxy-Ilydrogen flame................ 239
Connecting straps, burning on with soldering irons...................... 244
Connecting strapS, TEMOVINE...... cece cee ce ee eee te eee eee t eee e ene .189
Connection of battery to Car... .... cee eee cee tee te eee eee eet 71
Cold weather efficiency of storage batteries... 0.0.2.0... 0 ce eee ee ee eet 66
Corroded terminals. Causes and remedies............0cc cee ee tees cc cce .177
Course of operation of starting and lighting systems.................... 61
Covers, putting on the... ... ccc ect cee cree rete e eee e ete e ee eees 230
Covers, various designs for... .. 20... ccc ccc ccc ee cee eee e nese eeecees 96

Page

Cutout adjustment... 0... ccc cece cee ee cee een e ee teaeneeees 169
Cutout, operation of electromagnetic.............. 0. ce cece eee eens 65
Cutout, operation of manual... .......... eee cence teen eee 63
Cutout, operation of mechanical.............. 0c cece eee ee eee cence 64

D
Discharge board...... cc cece ee eee cece ee et ee eee tect e ee eeees 133
Discharge, changes at negative plates during........... cc. eee seen ewes 34
Discharge, changes at positive plates during................. 0. eee eee 35
Discharge, expansion of negative active material during........ seen ees 35
Discharge, chemical actions of........... cece ce eee eee t cece eee 15
Discharge, factors limiting extent of........... 0... ccc eee eee 31, 34, 42
Discharge, final products of ........... cece eee eee cet ee eee ees 12, 14
Discharge, ions during......... 2... ccc ete ee etree ee eens 22, 24
Discharge phenomena.......... cree cece ce cece ce eee eee ce eee e wees 29
Discharge, voltage changes during............ 0c. cece eee eee e eee neces 30
Discharging and testing batteries after rebuilding....................... 248
Discharging battery after charge............ ccc eccee cence eeeeeenes 186
Diseases of storage batteries. ... 0.0... tcc eee ee eee eee eens 51
Dry storage of batteries... ..... 0. cc ee eee eee eect ee enes 271
E

Early history of storage battery.................048. see cece e eee ee eees 11
Efficiency of battery in cold and warm weather................. cece eeee 66
Electric arc, lead burning with............ cece cee eee eee nes 152
Electricity not generated by battery......... 0... ec cee ee ee eee nee 22
Electricity, sources of, ON CAV... .. kk ee eee ee teenies 3
Electrolyte, adjusting after rebuilding.................. eee eee ee eee 248
Electrolyte, causes of leakage of, at top of battery....................6. 176
Electrolyte, causes of low level of...... 0.0... cece ce cee eee e eee eee 175
Electrolyte, changes in density of, during charge................0.00000- 38
Klectrolyte, changes in density of, during discharge.................... 32
Electrolyte, densities of, for best operation............... cece eee eee 36
Electrolyte, filling jars with.................. eben eee te eect ee eeee 16.228
Flectrolyte, freezing points Of... 0.0.0... . cece cence tenes 87
Flectrolyte, height of......... ccc ccc ce eee eee eee enna eanes 73
Electrolyte, mixing... ...... 0... ccc cece ce eet eee ete nett teen eens 158
Electrolyte, proportions of water and acid in mixing.................... 160
Electrolyte not decomposed in an idle battery............ ce. eee eee eeee. 27
Electrolytic rectifier........ 00. c eee eee ee ee te eee ee nent e eens 128
Elementary cella... 0... . cece ce cee ee eee eee teen tte e eens 5

Julements, reassembling the........--. cece cece cee ree cece eee e ee cees 222

280 INDEX

Page
[Examining plates in rebuilding batteries................. 0.0. cc ccceee: 200
Excessive temperature on charge........... 0. ccc cece eee e nce e ee nees 186
Exide batteries... .. cc ccc ccc cc cee eect e ce teen eee e ete eteeseees 258
EXid@€ COVETB. 0... cece cee ce eee eee tee eee ee eee eens ete eee eee 98
F
Filling jars with electrolyte............ cece cee cece reece eee ees 228
Find the cause of every trouble..... 0.0... 0. cece ce ec tenes 211
Finished work. ...... 0.2... cece cece ee eee ne eee eee eee eee e eee eeee 272
Finishing charge rate... .... 0.0... cece ee ccc tee eee e ee eee teenies 184
Forming plates... ... 0... ccc ccc cece eee eee ee teen eee eee e teas 92
Four compartment heater............ 0 ccc cee eee cee cee ete eee ee eee 192
Freeing Shorts... ... 0. ccc cc ce ce cet ce eee eee ee een ee ee eee eenes 211
Freshening charge......... 0... cece cece eee cere eee eee eee ee eecees 22
Freezing, causes and remedieS... 1.0... 00... cee cee cee teen e ee eens 178
Freezing points of electrolyte of various specific gravities................ 87
G
Gassing during charge........ 0... cc cece cece eee eee eee teen ee eeees 184
H
Hardening of negatives... ...... cece cece eee eee cee eee cence ences 59
Height of electrolyte... 0.0... cece ccc cece teen eee e ene eees 73
High gravity, causes and results Of.......... 0.6. cece eee c cece e ee ee 174
History of storage battery... ........ ccc ce cee eee ee eee eee eens 11
How chemical actions produce electricity....... 0.0... . cece ee eens 17
How to take care of battery on the car........... cece ee ees 68
I
Idle battery, causes of loss of charge in......... eee e eee eee nee 26 to 28
Idle battery, electrolyte not decomposed in........... ee cece eee eee ee 27
Idle battery, formation of sulphate im........ cc ce eee ee eee 26
Idie battery, loss of charge in, caused by impurities..................... 28
Idle battery, loss of charge in, caused by leakage....................08. 28
Installation of battery On Car... eee ce eee ee eee eee teen eees 69
Internal resistance, effect of active materials On.......... 20. cee ee ween 49
Internal resistance, effect of electrolyte on... 0.1... 0... cee ce ee ee ees 49
Internal resistance, effect of grids OM.......... cece ee ee ee ee ee nes 48
Ions during charge......... Cee eee eee eee e eee tee tee ee ene 18 to 22

Tons during discharge... ......... cece cece ec cece ee cece ee ee ee eeees 22 to 24

J
Page
Jars, putting in new......... ccc ccc cece cece cece tenes eens 2226
Jars, how to determine if cracked. .......... cc cc cece e cece ccc cece wenees 167
L
Lamps, do not use larger than those supplied with car..............006- 63
Layout for a small shop........... ccc cee ee cece ce tee tet eee eens 104
Lead burning with electric arc............. 0. e eee cee nee eee dee eeeee 152
Lead burning with gas flame..... 1.0.0... cece eee ee eee ence ences 152
Lead burning with oxygen-hydrogen flame........... ence nec ee nees 239
Lead burning with soldering irons................. 0.0. cece eee eee eee 244
Leakage of electrolyte at top of battery............... ee eee teen eens 176
Light in the shop..... Coe ee ee ee te eee ee eee eee te eee eee e ener n eens 109
Lights, causes of dim... ... cc eee ce ee tee e teen ee ee ete nees 178
Loss of charge in an idle battery......... 0... ce ee cece cee eee ee eee 26
Low gravity, causes Of........ cc eee te eee tence tee teens 172
Low level of electrolyte, causes and results of............ 0. cee ee ee eee 175
Low voltage, causeS Of... .... ccc eee ee ce ce eee eee ee teen ee eees 172
M
Manufacture of storage batteries... ...... 0... cee ce cece eee eee eens 89
Mercury arc rectifier... . 0... cele ce eee eee ee eee teens 123
Methods of heating sealing compounds..... Dee e eee eee eee cence eens 191
Methods of producing electricity..... 0.0... 0. ccc ccc ee ee eens 5
Mold for preparing burning lead........... cc cece cee eee nee 146
Molding grids for plates......-.. ccc ce cc cece teen eee eens 89
Motor generator setS...... 0. cece cece tee eee e eee eee eee enna 123
N
Negative plates, changes at during charge........... 6.0 c eee eee e ee eees 38
Negative plates, changes at during discharge...........--.. 0. - eee ee eee 34
Negative plates, expansion of during discharge. ................0 eee eeee 35
Negative plates, hardening Of ......... cece eect ee cee ete eee n ence 59
Negative plates, pressing......ceeee sce c crete eet e rete ett teen eee e teas 215
Normal charge.......- eee ce eect eee eet tee eee tee ene en ees 184
0
Open circuit voltage not a reliable test. 0... 0.0 cc eee et et tee tet e en eees 32
Opening a battery... ... cece ee ee eee tee eee nett eee eens 187

Opening, when necessary... --- ++ cere eee e teeter ett teen teen tenes 181

282 . INDEX

Page
Upening, when unnecessary... ....... cece cece e cece ee ce renee ee eeeeees 180
Operating conditions governing action of battery.................... -: 65
Operating temperatures... ... 0.0... eee cece ee ee teen cence eees 85
Operation, conditions of........ ee ete ee eee eee e ene eee eeeneeee 61
Operation, conditions of with engine idle................ 0s cece eee e eens 62
Operation, conditions of with engine running..................0ceeeeees 63
Operation, course of, in a starting and lighting system................. 61
Overcharge, monthly........ 0... cece eee ccc eect e eee eee eeeee 186
Overheating, causes and results of. ....... 0. e eee eee eee ee eens 175

P
Pastes, applying to gridS.... 0... cece ccc cence ence ee eeeeeees 91
Pastes, formulas for............ cece ccc ee eee eee ce eee eet e een eeeees 91
Plate Press... . eee eee cee teen ee ee nent sent eeeeee 142
Plates, buckling of ......... 0... cece ect ce eee ene eee eee en eees 58
Plates, burning on new.......... 2. ccc eee eee cece eee tenet e cease 239
Plates, examination of, in rebuilding............. 0... 0c cc cece eee eee 200
Plates, forming Of......... 0... cece cee ccc eee tenet teen teens 92
Plates, manufacture Of.......... ccc ccc cee cette eee e es neees 89
Plates, Planté and Faure...... 0... 0. cece eee eee ee eee eeeee 11
Plates, washing and pressing......... 0.0... cece eee ce eee eee eeee 215
Plates, what to do if some must be discarded.............. 0... cece cee: 199
Plates, when old may be used again............ 0... cece cee ee cee e ees 208
Plates, when to put in neW.......... ce cece eee eee e eee eens 201
Plugs filling, must be removed during charge................ cece eeueee: 184
Positive plates, buckling of, when exposed to light...................... 60
Positive plates, changes at during charge............. 2. cece eee eee 39
Positive plates, changes at during discharge.............. 0.2 cece ee nees 35
Positive plates, greater activity at, than at negative.................... 35
Precautions to be taken by repairman..............-. cece ee ecw eces 150
Preliminary charge in rebuilding batteries............... 0.0 cece ee eeeee 213
Preparing battery for US€........ ce cece eee eee ee eee ee ee eee nes 69
Prestolite batteries... eee ccc ec eee ete tee e eee eens 264
Primary and secondary cells..... 0... 0. cece ce cee ee eee ee ee eee neces 6
Producing electricity, methods of....... 0.0... cece ect eee eee eee ee 5
Proportions of water and acid in mixing electrolyte................. ...- 160
Putting elements im jars....... 0. cee ccc eee eee ee eee ee eee anes 227
Putting in NeW Jars... . 6... eee ee ee ee en ee ee ee eee enna: 226
Putting on the CoverS.......... ccc cect eee ee eee eee eeres 230
R

Reassembling the elements.......... 0... ccc cece eee cence eeeencs 1. 222

“abuilding batteries... 0... cc cee ccc tne cence eeee seen: 187

Page
Rectifier, electrolytic... ...... 0... cece ce cee eect eee teen ee teteeenes 128
Rectifier, Mercury ATC... 6c ec ce ce eee eee eee eee eee eee 123
Removing sealing compound.............. ccc cee cece eee ee eees eee eee 191
Repairing the case........... 00 cece eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eeeee 225

S
Saving the sediment... 0.0... 0... cece ccc ee cence ete eee e anes 157
Sealing compound, methods of heating.............. cece eee eee 191
Sealing compound, Tremoving............... cece eee cee eee eee eee 191
Sealing compounds. ...... 0... . cece cee eee eee eee eee ete eee ee eens 231
Sealing the battery.... 00.0... ccc eee teen ee eee ete neees 233
Separators, manufacture of........... 0. cece eee eee eee tenes 95
Separators, storing 2.0... 0... ce eee eee eee eee eee eens 210
Separators, work on, in rebuilding batteries..................00000420 209
Shelving ............ ee eee ee eee eee teen tee tee tence eee eens 109
Shop equipment... 0.0.0... cece eee eee eee tence teen eee eee 103
Shop, layout for small... ..... 0... cee ee ce eee eee ee eens 104
Shop, light in the....... 0... ccc cece ee eee eee eee eee ete eens 109
Shorts, freeing... 0... 6 ee ee ete eet ee eee e eee eens 211
Soldering irons, lead burning with...............0.0.- ne 244
Sources of electricity on the car...... 02... . cece ce ee ee eee eee 3
Specific gravity as affected by temperature............... eee ee eee eee 85
Specifie gravity, causes of loW........ eee eee eee ene nees 172
Specific gravity does not rise on charge............. 0. cee eee eee 176 to 186
Specific gravity, MeaSurINg......... cee cee eee ee eee e eee eees 79
Specific gravity rises above 1.300 on charge...............00--- Ore eees 186
Specific gravity, why 1.300 is used.......... cece cece e een eee e eee eeee 42
Standard method of procedure in handling plates................0.0000- 199
Starting charge rate... ... cee ce cee cee tee eee e eee e eee e ee eeees 184
Starting motor should be used as little as possible..........--....eee0e- 65
Steamer, battery... .. ccc cece ccc cece eee tee eee teen teeta ea tes 140
Steps in the application of electricity to the gasoline automobile........ 1
Storage battery does not generate electricity......... 0.0... ee ee cee eee 22
Storage battery, what it consists of .......... 0.6. c eee eee eens 89
Storing batteries while dry......... 0. cee cee ete cee eee teen anes 271
Sulphate, formation of, in an idle battery............ cece eee e eee eee 26
Sulphated battery, charging... ..... 0... ce eee eee eee eee teen ees 184
Rulphation oo... cece ce ee eee eee ee eee et ete tenes 51
T

Tagging batteries... 6... kee te ence ee eee e een ener eees 147

Temperature during charge... 2.2... e cee ee eee eee nent nee enees 185

284 INDEX

Page
Temperature, operating... .......... 0 ccc cece ee tee eee nse teen enc ee eee 85
Tools and equipment........-.- 0... cece cece eee ee cece eee eee eee 135
Trouble charts. ......... 0... cc ee cece eee nee eee e tees 172 to 178
Turntable for batteries. ... 0... 0... eee cece eee ee ee tee eet eee nee 144
U
U. S. L. batteries... ie ccc cee ce ee eee e eect eee eeenns 264
U. S. DL. Covers... ec ee cee eee eee eee ence e eect enee 98
V
Voltage, causes Of LOW... ... ee ccc cee cece ee ee te eee eee eee eee sees 172
Voltage changes during charge............. 0.02 c ccc cece eee tee teens 37 |
Voltage changes during discharge.......... Le eee cette eee e eee neen 30 |
Voltage independent of plate surface area........... 20.0... cc eee ee eee ee 32
Voltage on open circuit not reliable test.................. eet eee wees 32
, \
Ww
Warm weather efficiency of storage batteries............... 0. cee ee eee 66
Washing and pressing plates............ ccc eee eee e eee ee tee eee e ees 215 |
What must be done with opened battery.................. cee eee eee 198
What to do if some plates are to be discarded...................0.00000. 199 |
When a battery may be left on the car........ 0... eee eee nee 179
When a battery must be opened...........,. 20 cece eee eee cette eee eens 181
When a battery should be removed from car................00eeee ee eee 179 |
When it is unnecessary to open a battery............ sees eee ee eee 180 |
When the old plates may be used agaim.........-.-... cece eee cece eee 208 :
When to put in new plates........ 0... cee cece eee ee teen e ee 2... 201 |
Why specific gravity of 1.300 is used...........-e cece renee ee eee 42
Willard type S battery... .. 0.0... cece cee eee e ee eens . 250
Work bench, special... . 0.6... cee ce ee eee ete eee eee eee nee 105
Work on the battery................0 005: eee ee ee ee eee eee ees 182
A100) s¢-) 1X0) | 102

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